{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,22]],"date-time":"2025-11-22T16:59:21Z","timestamp":1763830761514,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,18]],"date-time":"2016-10-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1476748800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002341","name":"Suomen Akatemia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["268222"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["268222"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006276","name":"Fortums Stiftelse","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2001500084"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2001500084"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006276","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003593","name":"Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient\u00edfico e Tecnol\u00f3gico","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["490245\/2012-9"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["490245\/2012-9"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003593","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Energies"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This article presents a summary of the main findings from a collaborative research project between Aalto University in Finland and partner universities. A comparative process synthesis, modelling and thermal assessment was conducted for the production of Bio-synthetic natural gas (SNG) and hydrogen from supercritical water refining of a lipid extracted algae feedstock integrated with onsite heat and power generation. The developed reactor models for product gas composition, yield and thermal demand were validated and showed conformity with reported experimental results, and the balance of plant units were designed based on established technologies or state-of-the-art pilot operations. The poly-generative cases illustrated the thermo-chemical constraints and design trade-offs presented by key process parameters such as plant organic throughput, supercritical water refining temperature, nature of desirable coproducts, downstream indirect production and heat recovery scenarios. The evaluated cases favoring hydrogen production at 5 wt. % solid content and 600 \u00b0C conversion temperature allowed higher gross syngas and CHP production. However, mainly due to the higher utility demands the net syngas production remained lower compared to the cases favoring BioSNG production. The latter case, at 450 \u00b0C reactor temperature, 18 wt. % solid content and presence of downstream indirect production recorded 66.5%, 66.2% and 57.2% energetic, fuel-equivalent and exergetic efficiencies respectively.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/en9100838","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,18]],"date-time":"2016-10-18T10:46:25Z","timestamp":1476787585000},"page":"838","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["The BioSCWG Project: Understanding the Trade-Offs in the Process and Thermal Design of Hydrogen and Synthetic Natural Gas Production"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0157-0198","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed","family":"Magdeldin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Aalto University, Aalto FI-00076, Finland"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Kohl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Aalto University, Aalto FI-00076, Finland"}]},{"given":"Cataldo","family":"De Blasio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Aalto University, Aalto FI-00076, Finland"},{"name":"Department of Chemical Engineering, \u00c5bo Akademi University, Turku 20500, Finland"}]},{"given":"Mika","family":"J\u00e4rvinen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Aalto University, Aalto FI-00076, Finland"}]},{"given":"Song","family":"Won Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidade de S\u00e3o Paulo, S\u00e3o Paulo 05508-010, Brazil"}]},{"given":"Reinaldo","family":"Giudici","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidade de S\u00e3o Paulo, S\u00e3o Paulo 05508-010, Brazil"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change\u2014Paris Climate Change Conference\u2014November 2015. Available online: http:\/\/unfccc.int\/meetings\/paris_nov_2015\/meeting\/8926.php."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Edenhofer, O., Pichs-Madruga, R., Sokona, Y., Seyboth, K., Matschoss, P., Kadner, S., Zwickel, T., Eickemeier, P., Hansen, G., and Schl\u00f6mer, S. (2011). IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139151153"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1108\/MEQ-11-2013-0124","article-title":"An assessment of the uncertainties related to bioenergy applications","volume":"25","author":"Kainiemi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Manag. Environ. Qual."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.3390\/en8020859","article-title":"Supercritical water gasification of biomass: A literature and technology overview","volume":"8","author":"Yakaboylu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energies"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2725","DOI":"10.1021\/cr000668w","article-title":"Roles of water for chemical reactions in high-temperature water","volume":"102","author":"Akiya","year":"2002","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1002\/bbb.93","article-title":"Supercritical water gasification","volume":"2","author":"Kruse","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biofuels Bioprod. Biorefin."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.supflu.2014.09.038","article-title":"Water\u2014A magic solvent for biomass conversion","volume":"96","author":"Kruse","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Supercrit. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-chembioeng-073009-101311","article-title":"Applications of supercritical fluids","volume":"1","author":"Brunner","year":"2010","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Chem. Biomol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1002\/cssc.200700167","article-title":"Current and foreseeable applications of supercritical water for energy and the environment","volume":"1","author":"Aymonier","year":"2008","journal-title":"ChemSusChem"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.supflu.2014.06.008","article-title":"High pressure water reforming of biomass for energy and chemicals: A short review","volume":"96","author":"Knez","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Supercrit. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1039\/b810100k","article-title":"Thermochemical biofuel production in hydrothermal media: A review of sub- and supercritical water technologies","volume":"1","author":"Peterson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Energy Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2015.09.064","article-title":"A review on hydrothermal pre-treatment technologies and environmental profiles of algal biomass processing","volume":"199","author":"Patel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2015.11.018","article-title":"A comparison of product yields and inorganic content in process streams following thermal hydrolysis and hydrothermal processing of microalgae, manure and digestate","volume":"200","author":"Ekpo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Overend, R.P., Milne, T.A., and Mudge, L.K. (1985). Fundamentals of Thermochemical Biomass Conversion, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-009-4932-4"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Antal, M.J., Allen, S., Lichwa, J., Schulman, D., and Xu, X. (1999, January 4\u20136). Hydrogen production from high moisture content biomass in supercritical water. Proceedings of the 1999 U.S. DOE Hydrogen Program Review, NREL\/CP-570-26938, Golden, CO, USA."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2664","DOI":"10.1002\/jctb.4871","article-title":"A study on supercritical water gasification of black liquor conducted in stainless steel and nickel-chromium-molybdenum reactors","volume":"91","author":"Lucca","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2014.09.132","article-title":"Hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass: Developments from batch to continuous process","volume":"178","author":"Elliott","year":"2015","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/S0961-9534(03)00016-3","article-title":"Comprehensive comparison of efficiency and CO2 emissions between biomass energy conversion technologies\u2014Position of supercritical water gasification in biomass technologies","volume":"25","author":"Yoshida","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biomass Bioenergy"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.supflu.2014.07.003","article-title":"Reaction engineering for process intensification of supercritical water biomass refining","volume":"96","author":"Cantero","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Supercrit. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1080\/17597269.2015.1118785","article-title":"Process modeling, synthesis and thermodynamic evaluation of hydrogen production from hydrothermal processing of lipid extracted algae integrated with a downstream reformer conceptual plant","volume":"7","author":"Magdeldin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biofuels"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Magdeldin, M., Kohl, T., De Blasio, C., and J\u00e4rvinen, M. (July, January 29). Heat integration assessment for the conceptual plant design of synthetic natural gas production from supercritical water gasification of spirulina algae. Proceedings of ECOS 2015\u2014The 28th International Conference on Efficiency, Cost, Optimization, Simulation and Environmental Impact of Energy Systems, Pau, France."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Boukis, N., Galla, U., M\u00fcller, H., and Dinjus, E. (2007, January 7\u201311). Biomass gasification in supercritical water. Experimental progress achieved with the VERENA pilot plant. Proceedings of the 15th European Conference & Exhibition, Berlin, Germany."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12927","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2013.04.139","article-title":"Continuous hydrogen production by biomass gasification in supercritical water heated by molten salt flow: System development and reactor assessment","volume":"38","author":"Xiao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrog. Energy"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2010.08.030","article-title":"Energetic analysis of gasification of aqueous biomass in supercritical water","volume":"35","author":"Marias","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biomass Bioenergy"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1459","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cep.2004.01.004","article-title":"Biomass conversions in subcritical and supercritical water: Driving force, phase equilibria, and thermodynamic analysis","volume":"43","author":"Feng","year":"2004","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Process. Process Intensif."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2004.12.021","article-title":"Supercritical water gasification of biomass: Thermodynamic analysis with direct Gibbs free energy minimization","volume":"106","author":"Tang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2006.11.016","article-title":"Thermodynamic modeling and analysis of biomass gasification for hydrogen production in supercritical water","volume":"131","author":"Lu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9737","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2009.10.017","article-title":"Thermodynamic analysis of supercritical water gasification of methanol, ethanol, glycerol, glucose and cellulose","volume":"34","author":"Voll","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrog. Energy"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7574","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2011.05.017","article-title":"Supercritical water gasification of biomass: Thermodynamic constraints","volume":"102","author":"Castello","year":"2011","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"553","article-title":"Thermodynamic analysis of supercritical water gasification of microalgae biomass for hydrogen and syngas production","volume":"32","author":"Freitas","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Trans."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2014.09.129","article-title":"Thermodynamic modelling of supercritical water gasification: Investigating the effect of biomass composition to aid in the selection of appropriate feedstock material","volume":"174","author":"Louw","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1834","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cherd.2014.01.003","article-title":"High-yield hydrogen production by supercritical water gasification of various feedstocks: Alcohols, glucose, glycerol and long-chain alkanes","volume":"92","author":"Susanti","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Res. Des."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4481","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2015.02.033","article-title":"Simulation and kinetic modeling of supercritical water gasification of biomass","volume":"40","author":"Tushar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrog. Energy"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2008.02.021","article-title":"Economic analysis of sewage sludge gasification in supercritical water for hydrogen production","volume":"32","author":"Gasafi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biomass Bioenergy"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2012.06.116","article-title":"Supercritical water gasification of biomass for H2 production: Process design","volume":"121","author":"Fiori","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.supflu.2011.10.012","article-title":"System model for gasification of biomass model compounds in supercritical water\u2014A thermodynamic analysis","volume":"61","author":"Withag","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Supercrit. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2014.12.033","article-title":"Techno-economic assessment of hydrogen and power production from supercritical water reforming of glycerol","volume":"144","author":"Galera","year":"2015","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8994","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2011.04.095","article-title":"Thermodynamic study of the supercritical water reforming of glycerol","volume":"36","author":"Ollero","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrog. Energy"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2014.12.012","article-title":"Integrated supercritical water gasification and a combined cycle for microalgal utilization","volume":"91","author":"Aziz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1726","DOI":"10.1039\/c0ee00629g","article-title":"Optimal process design for the polygeneration of SNG, power and heat by hydrothermal gasification of waste biomass: Thermo-economic process modelling and integration","volume":"4","author":"Gassner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Energy Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1603","DOI":"10.1021\/ie020447b","article-title":"The State of the Cubic Equations of State","volume":"42","author":"Valderrama","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ind. Eng. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2012.12.038","article-title":"Producing synthetic natural gas from microalgae via supercritical water gasification: A techno-economic sensitivity analysis","volume":"51","author":"Brandenberger","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biomass Bioenergy"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1007\/s10811-009-9403-3","article-title":"SunCHem: An integrated process for the hydrothermal production of methane from microalgae and CO2 mitigation","volume":"21","author":"Haiduc","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1039\/b819874h","article-title":"Catalytic gasification of algae in supercritical water for biofuel production and carbon capture","volume":"2","author":"Stucki","year":"2009","journal-title":"Energy Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2006.08.001","article-title":"Finding appropriate operating conditions for hydrogen purification and recovery in supercritical water gasification of biomass","volume":"124","author":"Ji","year":"2006","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5550","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.iecr.5b00942","article-title":"Supercritical water gasification of biomass: A detailed process modeling analysis for a microalgae gasification process","volume":"54","author":"Yakaboylu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ind. Eng. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compchemeng.2015.01.013","article-title":"Multi-objective optimization of SNG production from microalgae through hydrothermal gasification","volume":"76","author":"Mian","year":"2015","journal-title":"Comput. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.algal.2015.12.002","article-title":"Review of recent reports on process technology for thermochemical conversion of whole algae to liquid fuels","volume":"13","author":"Elliott","year":"2016","journal-title":"Algal Res."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Kouhia, M., Holmberg, H., Sonck, M., and Ahtila, P. (2015, January 1\u20134). Energy analysis of algae-to-biofuel production chains integrated with a combined heat and power plant. Proceedings of the 23rd European Biomass Conference & Exhibition-EUBCE, Vienna, Austria."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berglin, E.J., Enderlin, C.W., and Schmidt, A.J. (2012). Review and Assessment of Commercial Vendors\/Options for Feeding and Pumping Biomass Slurries for Hydrothermal Liquefaction, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL). Report Number: PNNL-21981.","DOI":"10.2172\/1056168"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1213","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-2361(99)00047-2","article-title":"A novel microalgal system for energy production with nitrogen cycling","volume":"78","author":"Minowa","year":"1999","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1021\/ie9008293","article-title":"Catalytic and non-catalytic supercritical water gasification of microalgae and glycerol","volume":"49","author":"Chakinala","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ind. Eng. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2239","DOI":"10.1007\/s10811-014-0496-y","article-title":"Hydrothermal gasification of Acutodesmus obliquus for renewable energy production and nutrient recycling of microalgal mass cultures","volume":"27","author":"Patzelt","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1007\/s11027-012-9395-1","article-title":"Life cycle comparison of hydrothermal liquefaction and lipid extraction pathways to renewable diesel from algae","volume":"18","author":"Frank","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Chang."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2012.10.020","article-title":"Catalytic hydrothermal gasification of algae for hydrogen production: Composition of reaction products and potential for nutrient recycling","volume":"127","author":"Onwudili","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Phyllis2\u2014Database for Biomass and Waste. Available online: https:\/\/www.ecn.nl\/phyllis2\/."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Bejan, A., Tsatsaronis, G., and Moran, M. (1996). Thermal Design and Optimization, John Wiley & Sons. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuproc.2015.05.009","article-title":"Testing the constrained equilibrium method for the modeling of supercritical water gasification of biomass","volume":"138","author":"Yakaboylu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Fuel Process. Technol."}],"container-title":["Energies"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/9\/10\/838\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:33:19Z","timestamp":1760211199000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1073\/9\/10\/838"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,18]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,10]]}},"alternative-id":["en9100838"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/en9100838","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1073"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1996-1073"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,18]]}}}