{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T12:37:16Z","timestamp":1772800636958,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,27]],"date-time":"2017-09-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1506470400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008119","name":"Norges Milj\u00f8- og Biovitenskapelige Universitet","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["pro-no 196085\/v10 via ES460652"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["pro-no 196085\/v10 via ES460652"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008119","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The objective of the study was to describe self-reported health symptoms, the use of personal protective gear and clothing and poor safety procedures when applying pesticides among farm workers. A total of 128 adult farm workers were interviewed using a structured questionnaire during the farming season. The commonly used pesticides included profenofos, mancozeb, chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, deltamethrin, permethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, endosulfan and carbosulfan. The majority (&gt;90%) of farm workers used no personal protective clothing while handling pesticides. More than one-third of farm workers ate and drank without washing their hands following pesticide handling, while a smaller number smoked or chewed gum. Wearing special boots during pesticide application was found to reduce the risk of skin rash (OR = 0.2, 95% CI: 0.06\u20130.66), whereas smoking when applying pesticides increased the risk of chest pain occurrence (OR = 4.0, 95% CI: 1.14\u201315.43), as well as forgetfulness (OR = 4.0, 95% CI: 1.30\u201314.02). Chewing gum and eating when applying pesticides was associated with diarrhoea (OR = 11.0, 95% CI: 1.80\u20136.84 and OR = 7.0, 95% CI: 1.27\u20133.67 respectively). The increased self-reported prevalence of post-exposure adverse health effects among farm workers was associated with poor use of personal protective clothing and poor safety practices during pesticide use and handling. These data indicate the need for improved availability and use of protective equipment, and training in crop and pest management practices to prevent risky behavioursand for safer and sustainable vegetable production.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics5040024","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,27]],"date-time":"2017-09-27T10:52:25Z","timestamp":1506509545000},"page":"24","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Self-Reported Symptoms and Pesticide Use among Farm Workers in Arusha, Northern Tanzania: A Cross Sectional Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Wilbert","family":"Manyilizu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Health Systems Department, School of Public Administration and Management, Mzumbe University, P.O. Box 101, Morogoro 023, Tanzania"},{"name":"Departmentt of Veterinary Medicine and Public Health, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3021, Morogoro 023, Tanzania"},{"name":"Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 8146, 454 Oslo, Norway"}]},{"given":"Robbinson","family":"Mdegela","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departmentt of Veterinary Medicine and Public Health, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3021, Morogoro 023, Tanzania"}]},{"given":"Arnfinn","family":"Helleve","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Health and Society, University of Oslo, International Community Health, P.O. Box 1130 Blindern, N-0318, 454 Oslo, Norway"}]},{"given":"Eystein","family":"Skjerve","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 8146, 454 Oslo, Norway"}]},{"given":"Rudovick","family":"Kazwala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departmentt of Veterinary Medicine and Public Health, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3021, Morogoro 023, Tanzania"}]},{"given":"Hezron","family":"Nonga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departmentt of Veterinary Medicine and Public Health, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3021, Morogoro 023, Tanzania"}]},{"given":"Mette","family":"Muller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 8146, 454 Oslo, Norway"}]},{"given":"Elisabeth","family":"Lie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 8146, 454 Oslo, Norway"}]},{"given":"Jan","family":"Lyche","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 8146, 454 Oslo, Norway"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1402","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph8051402","article-title":"Pesticide exposure, safety issues, and risk assessment indicators","volume":"8","author":"Damalas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"33","article-title":"Adverse health effects of pesticides in agrarian populations of developing countries","volume":"200","author":"Kesavachandran","year":"2009","journal-title":"Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-069X-13-79","article-title":"Pesticide retailers\u2019 knowledge and handling practices in selected towns of Tanzania","volume":"13","author":"Lekei","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2017, September 11). Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. Available online: https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stockholm_Convention_on_Persistent_Organic_Pollutants."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.4103\/0019-5278.58915","article-title":"Pattern of use of personal protective equipments and measures during application of pesticides by agricultural workers in a rural area of Ahmednagar district, India","volume":"13","author":"Singh","year":"2009","journal-title":"Indian J. Occup. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jea.7500172","article-title":"Acute health effects of organophosphorus pesticides on Tanzanian small-scale coffee growers","volume":"11","author":"Ngowi","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1136\/oemed-2013-101490","article-title":"Biomonitoring of organophosphate exposure of pesticide sprayers and comparison of exposure levels with other population groups in Thessaly (Greece)","volume":"71","author":"Koureas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Occup. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lekei, E.E., Ngowi, A.V., and London, L. (2014). Farmers\u2019 knowledge, practices and injuries associated with pesticide exposure in rural farming villages in Tanzania. BMC Public Health, 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-14-389"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639814","DOI":"10.1155\/2011\/639814","article-title":"Pesticide use and self-reported symptoms of acute pesticide poisoning among aquatic farmers in Phnom Penh, Cambodia","volume":"2011","author":"Jensen","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1136\/oemed-2012-101005","article-title":"Depressive symptoms and severity of acute occupational pesticide poisoning among male farmers","volume":"70","author":"Kim","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Occup. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.publhealth.25.101802.123020","article-title":"Health effects of chronic pesticide exposure: Cancer and neurotoxicity","volume":"25","author":"Alavanja","year":"2004","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1002\/1097-0274(200010)38:4<455::AID-AJIM12>3.0.CO;2-L","article-title":"Respiratory symptoms: Associations with pesticides, silos, and animal confinement in the Iowa Farm Family Health and Hazard Surveillance Project","volume":"38","author":"Sprince","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Ind. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2405","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.297.21.2405","article-title":"Testing pesticides in humans: Of mice and men divided by ten","volume":"297","author":"Krimsky","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfm137","article-title":"Acceleration of autoimmunity by organochlorine pesticides: A comparison of splenic B-cell effects of chlordecone and estradiol in (NZBxNZW)F1 mice","volume":"99","author":"Wang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1177\/0960327108090266","article-title":"Oral exposure of male and female mice to formulations of organophosphorous pesticides: Congenital malformations","volume":"27","author":"Gomes","year":"2008","journal-title":"Hum. Exp. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.3109\/08923973.2010.495128","article-title":"Detection of thymocytes apoptosis in mice induced by organochlorine pesticides methoxychlor","volume":"33","author":"Fukuyama","year":"2011","journal-title":"Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(91)90356-T","article-title":"Chronic central nervous system effects of acute organophosphate pesticide intoxication. The Pesticide Health Effects Study Group","volume":"338","author":"Rosenstock","year":"1991","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1006\/enrs.1999.3958","article-title":"Subclinical health effects of environmental pesticide contamination in a developing country: Cholinesterase depression in children","volume":"81","author":"McConnell","year":"1999","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2013.04.006","article-title":"Emerging health issues from chronic pesticide exposure: Innovative methodologies and effects on molecular cell and tissue level","volume":"307","author":"Colosio","year":"2013","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-069X-5-10","article-title":"Occupational pesticide intoxications among farmers in Bolivia: A cross-sectional study","volume":"5","author":"Morant","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-016-0203-3","article-title":"Undereporting of acute pesticide poisoning in Tanzania: Modelling results from two cross-sectional studies","volume":"15","author":"Lekei","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1186\/1745-6673-2-9","article-title":"Pesticide exposure, risk factors and health problems among cutflower farmers: A cross sectional study","volume":"2","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Occup. Med. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1080\/1059924X.2013.826118","article-title":"Pesticide use practices in rural Armenia","volume":"18","author":"Tadevosyan","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Agromed."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2478\/v10102-009-0001-7","article-title":"Impact of pesticides use in agriculture: Their benefits and hazards","volume":"2","author":"Aktar","year":"2009","journal-title":"Interdiscip. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"2216","article-title":"Assessment of farming practices and uses of agrochemicals in Lake Manyara basin, Tanzania","volume":"6","author":"Nonga","year":"2011","journal-title":"Afr. J. Agric. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Erbaugh, J.M., Donnermeyer, J., and Kyamanywa, S. (2010). Factors Associated with the Use of Pesticides in Uganda: Strategic Options for Targeting Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Programs, AIAEE. Summer 02."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1080\/10440046.2011.530511","article-title":"Farmers\u2019 perceptions of pesticide efficacy: Reflections on the importance of pest management practices adoption","volume":"35","author":"Hashemi","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Sustain. Agric."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.4172\/2329-6879.1000223","article-title":"Self-reported health effects among short and long-term pesticide sprayers in Arusha, Northern Tanzania: A cross sectional study","volume":"3","author":"Manyilizu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Occup. Med. Health Aff."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412054","DOI":"10.1155\/2009\/412054","article-title":"Total pesticide exposure calculation among vegetable farmers in Benguet, Philippines","volume":"2009","author":"Lu","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Environ. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"241516","article-title":"Pesticides and health in vegetable production in Kenya","volume":"2015","author":"Ibrahim","year":"2015","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.4314\/ahs.v14i2.19","article-title":"Pesticide knowledge, practice and attitude and how it affects the health of small-scale farmers in Uganda: A cross-sectional study","volume":"14","author":"Oesterlund","year":"2014","journal-title":"Afr. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.8526","article-title":"Studying health outcomes in farmworker populations exposed to pesticides","volume":"114","author":"McCauley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1515\/reveh-2014-0072","article-title":"Organophosphate pesticides exposure among farmworkers: Pathways and risk of adverse health effects","volume":"30","author":"Suratman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1080\/1059924X.2011.555282","article-title":"Practices in pesticide handling and the use of personal protective equipment in Mexican agricultural workers","volume":"16","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Agromed."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1093\/annhyg\/mew004","article-title":"Use of chemical pesticides in Ethiopia: A cross-sectional comparative study on knowledge, attitude and practice of farmers and farmers in three farming systems","volume":"60","author":"Negatu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Occup. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.4102\/sajs.v107i7\/8.509","article-title":"Potential health effects of pesticide use on farmworkers in Lesotho","volume":"107","author":"Mokhele","year":"2011","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Naidoo, S., London, L., Rother, H.A., Burdorf, A., Naidoo, R.N., and Kromhout, H. (2010). Pesticide Safety Training and Practices in Women Working in Small-Scale Agriculture in South Africa, BMJ Publishing Group Limited. Available online: http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1136\/oem.2010.055863.","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.2010.055863"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1517","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1103637","article-title":"Status of legislation and regulatory control of public health pesticides in countries endemic with or at risk of major vector-borne diseases","volume":"119","author":"Matthews","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"213","article-title":"Status of Pesticide Policy and Regulations in Developing Countries","volume":"13","author":"Schaerers","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Abtric. Entomol."}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/5\/4\/24\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:46:03Z","timestamp":1760208363000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/5\/4\/24"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,27]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,12]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics5040024"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics5040024","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6304","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,27]]}}}