{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T04:56:24Z","timestamp":1793336184584,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":126,"publisher":"American Medical Association (AMA)","issue":"11","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JAMA"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec id=\"ab-jrv250015-1\">\n                    <jats:title>Importance<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Type 2 diabetes involves progressive loss of insulin secretion from pancreatic \u03b2 cells in the setting of insulin resistance and manifests clinically as hyperglycemia. Type 2 diabetes accounts for 90% to 95% of all cases of diabetes globally, with estimates ranging from 589 million to 828 million people worldwide. In the US, type 2 diabetes affects approximately 1 in 6 adults.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"ab-jrv250015-2\">\n                    <jats:title>Observations<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Risk factors for type 2 diabetes include older age, family history, overweight or obesity, physical inactivity, gestational diabetes, Hispanic ethnicity, and American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, or Black race. Diabetes is diagnosed if fasting plasma glucose is greater than or equal to 126 mg\/dL, hemoglobin A\n                      <jats:sub>1C<\/jats:sub>\n                      is greater than or equal to 6.5%, or 2-hour glucose during 75-g oral glucose tolerance testing is greater than or equal to 200 mg\/dL. Approximately one-third of adults with type 2 diabetes have cardiovascular disease and 10.1% have severe vision difficulty or blindness. The prevalence of type 2 diabetes is 39.2% among patients with kidney failure. Although weight management is an important component of treatment for type 2 diabetes, no specific diet has been proven to be most effective for improving health outcomes. Physical activity can reduce hemoglobin A\n                      <jats:sub>1C<\/jats:sub>\n                      by 0.4% to 1.0% and improve cardiovascular risk factors (ie, hypertension and dyslipidemia). Randomized clinical trials have reported absolute reductions in microvascular disease (3.5%), such as retinopathy and nephropathy, myocardial infarction (3.3%-6.2%), and mortality (2.7%-4.9%), with intensive glucose-lowering strategies (hemoglobin A\n                      <jats:sub>1C<\/jats:sub>\n                      &amp;amp;lt;7%) vs conventional treatment 2 decades after trial completion. First-line medications for type 2 diabetes include metformin and, in patients with cardiovascular or kidney comorbidities or at high cardiovascular risk, glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) or sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2is). Common add-on medications include dual glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP)\/GLP-1RAs, dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors, sulfonylureas, and thiazolidinediones. Approximately one-third of patients with type 2 diabetes require treatment with insulin during their lifetime. Several randomized clinical trials have demonstrated benefits of specific SGLT2i and GLP-1RA medications compared with placebo for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (12%-26% risk reduction), heart failure (18%-25% risk reduction), and kidney disease (24%-39% risk reduction) over 2 to 5 years. Most trial participants with type 2 diabetes were taking metformin. High-potency GLP-1RA and dual GIP\/GLP-1RA medications result in weight loss of greater than 5% in most individuals with type 2 diabetes, and weight loss may exceed 10%.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"ab-jrv250015-3\">\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Type 2 diabetes affects up to 14% of the global population and is associated with preventable long-term complications, such as cardiovascular disease, kidney failure, vision loss, and increased mortality. In addition to lifestyle modifications including diet, exercise, and weight management, metformin is generally first-line therapy for attainment of hemoglobin A\n                      <jats:sub>1C<\/jats:sub>\n                      targets. For individuals with type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular or kidney disease or at high cardiovascular risk, guidelines recommend early treatment with SGLT2i and\/or GLP-1RA medications.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2025.5956","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,23]],"date-time":"2025-06-23T11:31:04Z","timestamp":1750678264000},"page":"984","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":166,"title":["Diagnosis and Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes in Adults"],"prefix":"10.1001","volume":"334","author":[{"given":"Rita R.","family":"Kalyani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joshua J.","family":"Neumiller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nisa M.","family":"Maruthur","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of General Internal Medicine, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Deborah J.","family":"Wexler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Diabetes Unit, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"10","reference":[{"issue":"10467","key":"jrv250015r1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2077","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)02317-1","article-title":"Worldwide trends in diabetes prevalence and treatment from 1990 to 2022.","volume":"404","author":"NCD Risk Factor Collaboration (NCD-RisC)","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"516","key":"jrv250015r4","article-title":"Prevalence of total, diagnosed, and undiagnosed diabetes in adults: United States, August 2021-August 2023.","volume":"516","author":"Gwira","year":"2024","journal-title":"NCHS Data Brief"},{"issue":"8","key":"jrv250015r5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1080\/00325481.2020.1771047","article-title":"Beta-cell failure in type 2 diabetes: mechanisms, markers, and clinical implications.","volume":"132","author":"Wysham","year":"2020","journal-title":"Postgrad Med"},{"key":"jrv250015r6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"l5003","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.l5003","article-title":"Trends in incidence of total or type 2 diabetes: systematic review.","volume":"366","author":"Magliano","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"issue":"14","key":"jrv250015r8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1206","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2023.4063","article-title":"Diagnosis and management of prediabetes: a review.","volume":"329","author":"Echouffo-Tcheugui","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"10","key":"jrv250015r9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.1038\/gim.2017.238","article-title":"The contribution of family history to the burden of diagnosed diabetes, undiagnosed diabetes, and prediabetes in the United States: analysis of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2009-2014.","volume":"20","author":"Moonesinghe","year":"2018","journal-title":"Genet Med"},{"key":"jrv250015r10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj-2021-067516","article-title":"Anthropometric and adiposity indicators and risk of type 2 diabetes.","volume":"376","author":"Jayedi","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"issue":"24","key":"jrv250015r11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2389","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2019.19365","article-title":"Prevalence of diabetes by race and ethnicity in the United States, 2011-2016.","volume":"322","author":"Cheng","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"7","key":"jrv250015r12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-015-0056-z","article-title":"Physical activity and the risk of type 2 diabetes.","volume":"30","author":"Aune","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur J Epidemiol"},{"key":"jrv250015r13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.1012244","article-title":"Progression to type 2 diabetes mellitus after gestational diabetes mellitus diagnosed by IADPSG criteria: systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"13","author":"Juan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)"},{"issue":"1","key":"jrv250015r14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S1","DOI":"10.2337\/dc25-SINT","article-title":"Standards of care in diabetes: 2025.","volume":"48","author":"American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee","year":"2025","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"issue":"8003","key":"jrv250015r15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-024-07019-6","article-title":"Genetic drivers of heterogeneity in type 2 diabetes pathophysiology.","volume":"627","author":"Suzuki","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"8","key":"jrv250015r16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1007\/s11892-019-1173-y","article-title":"The genetic epidemiology of type 2 diabetes: opportunities for health translation.","volume":"19","author":"Meigs","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr Diab Rep"},{"issue":"1","key":"jrv250015r17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1186\/s12933-018-0728-6","article-title":"Prevalence of cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetes.","volume":"17","author":"Einarson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cardiovasc Diabetol"},{"issue":"10","key":"jrv250015r19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2024.03.006","article-title":"The global epidemiology of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis among patients with type 2 diabetes.","volume":"22","author":"Younossi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol"},{"issue":"3","key":"jrv250015r21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecl.2021.05.001","article-title":"The changing nature of mortality and morbidity in patients with diabetes.","volume":"50","author":"Pearson-Stuttard","year":"2021","journal-title":"Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am"},{"issue":"8","key":"jrv250015r22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"736","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2021.12531","article-title":"Screening for prediabetes and type 2 diabetes: US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement.","volume":"326","author":"US Preventive Services Task Force","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"7","key":"jrv250015r24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-019-4863-8","article-title":"Type 1 diabetes defined by severe insulin deficiency occurs after 30 years of age and is commonly treated as type 2 diabetes.","volume":"62","author":"Thomas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"jrv250015r25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2018.02.026","article-title":"Effect of dietary carbohydrate restriction on glycemic control in adults with diabetes.","volume":"139","author":"Sainsbury","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Res Clin Pract"},{"issue":"1","key":"jrv250015r26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1186\/s40795-024-00836-y","article-title":"The effects of Mediterranean diet on cardiovascular risk factors, glycemic control and weight loss in patients with type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis.","volume":"10","author":"Zheng","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Nutr"},{"issue":"2","key":"jrv250015r27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11020338","article-title":"DASH dietary pattern and cardiometabolic outcomes: an umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses.","volume":"11","author":"Chiavaroli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"issue":"25","key":"jrv250015r28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1800389","article-title":"Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with a mediterranean diet supplemented with extra-virgin olive oil or nuts.","volume":"378","author":"Estruch","year":"2018","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"10","key":"jrv250015r29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1659","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jand.2017.03.022","article-title":"Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics Nutrition Practice guideline for type 1 and type 2 diabetes in adults.","volume":"117","author":"Franz","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Acad Nutr Diet"},{"issue":"5","key":"jrv250015r30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.2337\/dci19-0014","article-title":"Nutrition therapy for adults with diabetes or prediabetes: a consensus report.","volume":"42","author":"Evert","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"issue":"2","key":"jrv250015r31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.2337\/dc21-2396","article-title":"2022 National standards for diabetes self-management education and support.","volume":"45","author":"Davis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"issue":"1","key":"jrv250015r32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsx.2020.12.030","article-title":"Effect of diabetes self-management education (DSME) on glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) level among patients with T2DM.","volume":"15","author":"Bekele","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab Syndr"},{"issue":"2","key":"jrv250015r33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.2337\/dc23-0800","article-title":"Optimal dose and type of physical activity to improve glycemic control in people diagnosed with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"47","author":"Gallardo-G\u00f3mez","year":"2024","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"issue":"10120","key":"jrv250015r34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)33102-1","article-title":"Primary care-led weight management for remission of type 2 diabetes (DiRECT): an open-label, cluster-randomised trial.","volume":"391","author":"Lean","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"8","key":"jrv250015r35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1246","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.23158","article-title":"Does lifestyle intervention improve health of adults with overweight\/obesity and type 2 diabetes? findings from the Look AHEAD randomized trial.","volume":"29","author":"Wing","year":"2021","journal-title":"Obesity (Silver Spring)"},{"issue":"9131","key":"jrv250015r36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)07019-6","article-title":"Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33).","volume":"352","author":"UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group","year":"1998","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"9131","key":"jrv250015r37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"854","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)07037-8","article-title":"Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34).","volume":"352","author":"UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group","year":"1998","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"10448","key":"jrv250015r38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)00537-3","article-title":"Post-trial monitoring of a randomised controlled trial of intensive glycaemic control in type 2 diabetes extended from 10 years to 24 years (UKPDS 91).","volume":"404","author":"Adler","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"24","key":"jrv250015r39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2545","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0802743","article-title":"Effects of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes.","volume":"358","author":"Gerstein","year":"2008","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"24","key":"jrv250015r40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2560","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0802987","article-title":"Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes.","volume":"358","author":"Patel","year":"2008","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"jrv250015r41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0808431","article-title":"Glucose control and vascular complications in veterans with type 2 diabetes.","volume":"360","author":"Duckworth","year":"2009","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"3","key":"jrv250015r42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1001288","article-title":"Effects of medical therapies on retinopathy progression in type 2 diabetes.","volume":"363","author":"Chew","year":"2010","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"jrv250015r43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1097\/MOL.0b013e328332dfaa","article-title":"Update in diabetes and cardiovascular disease: synthesizing the evidence from recent trials of glycemic control to prevent cardiovascular disease.","volume":"21","author":"Park","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr Opin Lipidol"},{"issue":"23","key":"jrv250015r44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2215","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1806802","article-title":"Intensive glucose control in patients with type 2 diabetes - 15-year follow-up.","volume":"380","author":"Reaven","year":"2019","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"3","key":"jrv250015r45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1080\/17446651.2022.2079495","article-title":"Intensive glycemic control and macrovascular, microvascular, hypoglycemia complications and mortality in older (age =60years) or frail adults with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis from randomized controlled trial and observation studies.","volume":"17","author":"Crabtree","year":"2022","journal-title":"Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"jrv250015r46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.deman.2023.100162","article-title":"Severe hypoglycemia and falls in older adults with diabetes: The Diabetes & Aging Study.","volume":"12","author":"Moffet","year":"2023","journal-title":"Diabet Epidemiol Manag"},{"issue":"7","key":"jrv250015r47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"920","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2017.1233","article-title":"Glucose self-monitoring in non-insulin-treated patients with type 2 diabetes in primary care settings: a randomized trial.","volume":"177","author":"Young","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA Intern Med"},{"issue":"3","key":"jrv250015r48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-007-0911-x","article-title":"A randomised, 52-week, treat-to-target trial comparing insulin detemir with insulin glargine when administered as add-on to glucose-lowering drugs in insulin-naive people with type 2 diabetes.","volume":"51","author":"Rosenstock","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"issue":"5","key":"jrv250015r49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-024-06107-6","article-title":"Continuous glucose monitoring in adults with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"67","author":"Jancev","year":"2024","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"issue":"1","key":"jrv250015r50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1007\/s13300-016-0223-6","article-title":"Flash glucose-sensing technology as a replacement for blood glucose monitoring for the management of insulin-treated type 2 diabetes.","volume":"8","author":"Haak","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes Ther"},{"issue":"6","key":"jrv250015r51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2022.0011","article-title":"Accuracy and safety of Dexcom G7 continuous glucose monitoring in adults with diabetes.","volume":"24","author":"Garg","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol Ther"},{"issue":"11","key":"jrv250015r52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3922","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2016-2534","article-title":"Diabetes technology-continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion therapy and continuous glucose monitoring in adults: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline.","volume":"101","author":"Peters","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"issue":"6","key":"jrv250015r53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eprac.2021.04.008","article-title":"American Association of Clinical Endocrinology clinical practice guideline.","volume":"27","author":"Grunberger","year":"2021","journal-title":"Endocr Pract"},{"issue":"2","key":"jrv250015r54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI142243","article-title":"Pharmacological treatment of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes.","volume":"131","author":"Taylor","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Clin Invest"},{"issue":"4","key":"jrv250015r55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.7326\/M20-0864","article-title":"Comparative effectiveness of glucose-lowering drugs for type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and network meta-analysis.","volume":"173","author":"Tsapas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann Intern Med"},{"issue":"8","key":"jrv250015r56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-022-05715-4","article-title":"Management of type 2 diabetes with the dual GIP\/GLP-1 receptor agonist tirzepatide: a systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"65","author":"Karagiannis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"issue":"9","key":"jrv250015r57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2116","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.14451","article-title":"Comparative efficacy of glucose-lowering medications on body weight and blood pressure in patients with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and network meta-analysis.","volume":"23","author":"Tsapas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes Metab"},{"issue":"15","key":"jrv250015r60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0806470","article-title":"10-year follow-up of intensive glucose control in type 2 diabetes.","volume":"359","author":"Holman","year":"2008","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"7","key":"jrv250015r61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1611925","article-title":"Canagliflozin and cardiovascular and renal events in type 2 diabetes.","volume":"377","author":"Neal","year":"2017","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"22","key":"jrv250015r62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2117","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1504720","article-title":"Empagliflozin, cardiovascular outcomes, and mortality in type 2 diabetes.","volume":"373","author":"Zinman","year":"2015","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"24","key":"jrv250015r63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2295","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1811744","article-title":"Canagliflozin and renal outcomes in type 2 diabetes and nephropathy.","volume":"380","author":"Perkovic","year":"2019","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"15","key":"jrv250015r64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1436","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2024816","article-title":"Dapagliflozin in patients with chronic kidney disease.","volume":"383","author":"Heerspink","year":"2020","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"jrv250015r65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2204233","article-title":"Empagliflozin in patients with chronic kidney disease.","volume":"388","author":"Herrington","year":"2023","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"21","key":"jrv250015r66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1995","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1911303","article-title":"Dapagliflozin in patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction.","volume":"381","author":"McMurray","year":"2019","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"15","key":"jrv250015r67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1413","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2022190","article-title":"Cardiovascular and renal outcomes with empagliflozin in heart failure.","volume":"383","author":"Packer","year":"2020","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"16","key":"jrv250015r68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1451","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2107038","article-title":"Empagliflozin in heart failure with a preserved ejection fraction.","volume":"385","author":"Anker","year":"2021","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"12","key":"jrv250015r69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1089","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2206286","article-title":"Dapagliflozin in heart failure with mildly reduced or preserved ejection fraction.","volume":"387","author":"Solomon","year":"2022","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"10193","key":"jrv250015r70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(19)31149-3","article-title":"Dulaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes (REWIND): a double-blind, randomised placebo-controlled trial.","volume":"394","author":"Gerstein","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"4","key":"jrv250015r71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1603827","article-title":"Liraglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes.","volume":"375","author":"Marso","year":"2016","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"19","key":"jrv250015r72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1834","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1607141","article-title":"Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes.","volume":"375","author":"Marso","year":"2016","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"jrv250015r73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2403347","article-title":"Effects of semaglutide on chronic kidney disease in patients with type 2 diabetes.","volume":"391","author":"Perkovic","year":"2024","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"15","key":"jrv250015r74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1394","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2313917","article-title":"Semaglutide in patients with obesity-related heart failure and type 2 diabetes.","volume":"390","author":"Kosiborod","year":"2024","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"10437","key":"jrv250015r75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1635","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)00469-0","article-title":"Semaglutide versus placebo in people with obesity-related heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: a pooled analysis of the STEP-HFpEF and STEP-HFpEF DM randomised trials.","volume":"403","author":"Butler","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"4","key":"jrv250015r76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.2337\/cd19-0100","article-title":"Switching between glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists: rationale and practical guidance.","volume":"38","author":"Almandoz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin Diabetes"},{"issue":"14","key":"jrv250015r77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1317","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1307684","article-title":"Saxagliptin and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.","volume":"369","author":"Scirica","year":"2013","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"9493","key":"jrv250015r78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)67528-9","article-title":"Secondary prevention of macrovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes in the PROactive Study (prospective pioglitazone clinical trial in macrovascular events): a randomised controlled trial.","volume":"366","author":"Dormandy","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"14","key":"jrv250015r79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1321","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1506930","article-title":"Pioglitazone after ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack.","volume":"374","author":"Kernan","year":"2016","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"6","key":"jrv250015r80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2107519","article-title":"Tirzepatide versus semaglutide once weekly in patients with type 2 diabetes.","volume":"385","author":"Fr\u00edas","year":"2021","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"12","key":"jrv250015r81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2019.13772","article-title":"Effect of linagliptin vs glimepiride on major adverse cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes: the CAROLINA randomized clinical trial.","volume":"322","author":"Rosenstock","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"6","key":"jrv250015r82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1150","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.14687","article-title":"Efficacy of lower doses of pioglitazone after stroke or transient ischaemic attack in patients with insulin resistance.","volume":"24","author":"Spence","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes Metab"},{"issue":"1","key":"jrv250015r83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.14555","article-title":"Sotagliflozin for patients with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"24","author":"Avgerinos","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes Metab"},{"issue":"10","key":"jrv250015r84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1392","DOI":"10.7326\/M21-2941","article-title":"First-Line therapy for type 2 diabetes with sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists: a cost-effectiveness study.","volume":"175","author":"Choi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann Intern Med"},{"issue":"11","key":"jrv250015r85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(17)30309-1","article-title":"Effects of acarbose on cardiovascular and diabetes outcomes in patients with coronary heart disease and impaired glucose tolerance (ACE): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.","volume":"5","author":"Holman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol"},{"key":"jrv250015r86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2501006","article-title":"Oral semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in high-risk type 2 diabetes.","author":"McGuire","year":"2025","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"16","key":"jrv250015r87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1463","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1001122","article-title":"Effect of nateglinide on the incidence of diabetes and cardiovascular events.","volume":"362","author":"Holman","year":"2010","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"jrv250015r88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1812389","article-title":"Dapagliflozin and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes.","volume":"380","author":"Wiviott","year":"2019","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"jrv250015r89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.15749","article-title":"Optimizing metformin therapy in practice: tailoring therapy in specific patient groups to improve tolerability, efficacy and outcomes.","volume":"26","author":"Silverii","year":"2024","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes Metab"},{"issue":"11","key":"jrv250015r90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2813","DOI":"10.1007\/s13300-021-01155-2","article-title":"An update to the article \u201cefficacy and side effect profile of different formulations of metformin: a systematic review and meta-analysis\u201d.","volume":"12","author":"Aiken","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diabetes Ther"},{"issue":"12","key":"jrv250015r91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2200433","article-title":"Glycemia reduction in type 2 diabetes: glycemic outcomes.","volume":"387","author":"Nathan","year":"2022","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"jrv250015r93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1203858","article-title":"Basal insulin and cardiovascular and other outcomes in dysglycemia.","volume":"367","author":"Gerstein","year":"2012","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"5","key":"jrv250015r94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eprac.2023.02.001","article-title":"American Association of Clinical Endocrinology consensus statement: comprehensive type 2 diabetes management algorithm: 2023 update.","volume":"29","author":"Samson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Endocr Pract"},{"issue":"5","key":"jrv250015r95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1520","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2019-00198","article-title":"Treatment of diabetes in older adults: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline.","volume":"104","author":"LeRoith","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"issue":"8","key":"jrv250015r96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.7326\/M17-0939","article-title":"Hemoglobin A1c targets for glycemic control with pharmacologic therapy for nonpregnant adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a guidance statement update from the American College of Physicians.","volume":"168","author":"Qaseem","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann Intern Med"},{"issue":"5","key":"jrv250015r97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.7326\/M23-2788","article-title":"Newer pharmacologic treatments in adults with type 2 diabetes: a clinical guideline from the American College of Physicians.","volume":"177","author":"Qaseem","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann Intern Med"},{"issue":"6","key":"jrv250015r101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.7326\/M18-1149","article-title":"Medicines for treatment intensification in type 2 diabetes and type of insulin in type 1 and type 2 diabetes in low-resource settings: synopsis of the World Health Organization guidelines on second- and third-line medicines and type of insulin for the control of blood glucose levels in nonpregnant adults with diabetes mellitus.","volume":"169","author":"Roglic","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann Intern Med"},{"key":"jrv250015r102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2025.112152","article-title":"IDF global clinical practice recommendations for managing type 2 diabetes: 2025.","author":"Ceriello","year":"2025","journal-title":"Diabetes Res Clin Pract"},{"key":"jrv250015r104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2415948","article-title":"A Randomized Trial of Automated Insulin Delivery in Type 2 Diabetes.","author":"Kudva","year":"2025","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"5","key":"jrv250015r105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kint.2022.08.012","article-title":"Diabetes management in chronic kidney disease: a consensus report by the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO).","volume":"102","author":"de Boer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Kidney Int"},{"issue":"13","key":"jrv250015r106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1248","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMcp2000280","article-title":"Glucose-lowering drugs to reduce cardiovascular risk in type 2 diabetes.","volume":"384","author":"Kalyani","year":"2021","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"jrv250015r107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1001\/jamacardio.2020.4511","article-title":"Association of SGLT2 inhibitors with cardiovascular and kidney outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis.","volume":"6","author":"McGuire","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Cardiol"},{"issue":"10","key":"jrv250015r108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(19)30249-9","article-title":"Cardiovascular, mortality, and kidney outcomes with GLP-1 receptor agonists in patients with type 2 diabetes.","volume":"7","author":"Kristensen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol"},{"issue":"5","key":"jrv250015r109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2410027","article-title":"Tirzepatide for heart failure with preserved ejection fraction and obesity.","volume":"392","author":"Packer","year":"2025","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"jrv250015r110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2024.24671","article-title":"Diabetes and chronic kidney disease.","volume":"333","author":"Limonte","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"2","key":"jrv250015r111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(19)30379-1","article-title":"Liberalisation, deintensification, and simplification in diabetes management: words matter.","volume":"8","author":"Munshi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol"},{"issue":"8","key":"jrv250015r112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(24)00155-4","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of SGLT2 inhibitors with and without glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists.","volume":"12","author":"Apperloo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol"},{"issue":"12","key":"jrv250015r113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1696","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2020.2922","article-title":"Out-of-pocket costs for novel guideline-directed diabetes therapies under Medicare Part D.","volume":"180","author":"DeJong","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Intern Med"},{"issue":"20","key":"jrv250015r114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1741","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2024.17275","article-title":"Strategies to help patients navigate high prescription drug costs.","volume":"332","author":"Lalani","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"21","key":"jrv250015r115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2005","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.281.21.2005","article-title":"Glycemic control with diet, sulfonylurea, metformin, or insulin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.","volume":"281","author":"Turner","year":"1999","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"11","key":"jrv250015r116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2753","DOI":"10.2337\/dci22-0034","article-title":"Management of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes, 2022: a consensus report by the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD).","volume":"45","author":"Davies","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"issue":"5","key":"jrv250015r117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1210\/clinem\/dgad745","article-title":"Prioritizing patient experiences in the management of diabetes and its complications: an Endocrine Society position statement.","volume":"109","author":"Kalyani","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"issue":"7","key":"jrv250015r118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdiacomp.2018.04.007","article-title":"Recurrent hospitalizations for severe hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia among US adults with diabetes.","volume":"32","author":"McCoy","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Diabetes Complications"},{"issue":"2","key":"jrv250015r119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2015.09.006","article-title":"Severe hypoglycaemia during treatment with sulphonylureas in patients with type 2 diabetes in the Capital Region of Denmark.","volume":"110","author":"Pilemann-Lyberg","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetes Res Clin Pract"},{"issue":"7","key":"jrv250015r120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2016.2275","article-title":"Intensive treatment and severe hypoglycemia among adults with type 2 diabetes.","volume":"176","author":"McCoy","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA Intern Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"jrv250015r121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.2337\/dc16-0985","article-title":"Trends in drug utilization, glycemic control, and rates of severe hypoglycemia, 2006-2013.","volume":"40","author":"Lipska","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"issue":"5S","key":"jrv250015r122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kint.2022.06.008","article-title":"KDIGO 2022 clinical practice guideline for diabetes management in chronic kidney disease.","volume":"102","author":"Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Diabetes Work Group","year":"2022","journal-title":"Kidney Int"},{"issue":"7","key":"jrv250015r123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1600869","article-title":"Bariatric surgery versus intensive medical therapy for diabetes.","volume":"376","author":"Schauer","year":"2017","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"8","key":"jrv250015r124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2024.0318","article-title":"Long-term outcomes of medical management vs bariatric surgery in type 2 diabetes.","volume":"331","author":"Courcoulas","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"2","key":"jrv250015r125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.2337\/dc21-1335","article-title":"Association of bariatric surgery with cancer incidence in patients with obesity and diabetes.","volume":"45","author":"Sj\u00f6holm","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"issue":"7","key":"jrv250015r126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6192","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24076192","article-title":"Systematic review and meta-analysis of the impact of bariatric surgery on future cancer risk.","volume":"24","author":"Wilson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"jrv250015r20","volume-title":"Diabetes in America","author":"Casagrande","year":"2018","edition":"3rd ed"},{"key":"jrv250015r23","volume-title":"Use of Glycated Haemoglobin (HbA1c) in the Diagnosis of Diabetes Mellitus","year":"1999"},{"key":"jrv250015r92","volume-title":"Practical Insulin: A Handbook or Prescribing Providers","year":"2023","edition":"6th ed"},{"key":"jrv250015r2","unstructured":"International Diabetes Federation. IDF Diabetes Atlas, 11th edition. Accessed April 30, 2025. https:\/\/diabetesatlas.org\/media\/uploads\/sites\/3\/2025\/04\/IDF_Atlas_11th_Edition_2025.pdf"},{"key":"jrv250015r3","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Diabetes Statistics Report 2024. Department of Health and Human Services; 2024. Accessed February 23, 2025. https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/diabetes\/php\/data-research\/index.html"},{"key":"jrv250015r7","unstructured":"Global Burden of Disease Study 2021: results. Institute for Health Metrics Evaluation. Accessed February 23, 2025, https:\/\/vizhub.healthdata.org\/gbd-results\/"},{"key":"jrv250015r18","unstructured":"Diabetes. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Health Statistics. Accessed February 23, 2025. https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchs\/fastats\/diabetes.htm"},{"key":"jrv250015r58","unstructured":"NADAC (National Average Drug Acquisition Cost). Data.Medicade.gov. Accessed February 23, 2025, https:\/\/data.medicaid.gov\/dataset\/99315a95-37ac-4eee-946a-3c523b4c481e"},{"key":"jrv250015r59","unstructured":"Micromedex. Accessed February 23, 2025, https:\/\/www.micromedexsolutions.com"},{"key":"jrv250015r98","unstructured":"VA\/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Department of Veterans Affairs, Department of Defense; 2023. Accessed February 23, 2025. https:\/\/www.healthquality.va.gov\/guidelines\/CD\/diabetes\/VADoD-Diabetes-CPG_Final_508.pdf"},{"key":"jrv250015r99","unstructured":"Clinical practice guidelines. Diabetes Canada. Accessed February 23, 2025. https:\/\/guidelines.diabetes.ca\/cpg"},{"key":"jrv250015r100","unstructured":"Type 2 diabetes in adults: management. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Accessed February 23, 2025. http:\/\/www.nice.org.uk\/guidance\/ng28"},{"key":"jrv250015r103","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. United States Diabetes Surveillance System (USDSS). Accessed February 25, 2025. https:\/\/gis.cdc.gov\/grasp\/diabetes\/diabetesatlas-surveillance.html"}],"container-title":["JAMA"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/jamanetwork.com\/journals\/jama\/articlepdf\/2835629\/jama_kalyani_2025_rv_250015_1757361736.24309.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]],"date-time":"2025-09-16T15:00:46Z","timestamp":1758034846000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/jamanetwork.com\/journals\/jama\/fullarticle\/2835629"}},"subtitle":["A Review"],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]]},"references-count":126,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jama.2025.5956","relation":{},"ISSN":["0098-7484"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0098-7484","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]]}}}