{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T12:55:01Z","timestamp":1791896101379,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"American Medical Association (AMA)","issue":"9","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JAMA Netw Open"],"abstract":"Importance<\/jats:title>Environmental disasters, such as the Flint, Michigan, water crisis, are potentially traumatic events (PTEs) that may precipitate long-term psychiatric disorders. The water crisis was associated with acute elevations in mental health problems in the Flint community, but long-term psychiatric sequelae have not yet been evaluated using standardized diagnostic measures.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>Objective<\/jats:title>To investigate the prevalence of and factors associated with current presumptive diagnostic-level major depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among Flint residents 5 years after the onset of the crisis.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>Design, Setting, and Participants<\/jats:title>In this cross-sectional study, a household probability sample of 1970 adults living in Flint, Michigan, during the crisis were surveyed about their crisis experiences, their psychological symptoms 5 years later, and their access to and use of mental health services in the intervening years. Analyses were weighted to produce population-representative estimates.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>Main Outcomes and Measures<\/jats:title>Presumptive Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders<\/jats:italic> (Fifth Edition) (DSM-5<\/jats:italic>) diagnostic-level past-year major depression and PTSD.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>Results<\/jats:title>Among 1970 respondents, 1061 of 1946 reporting sex (54.5%) were women; 1043 of 1951 reporting race (53.5%) were Black or African American and 829 (42.5%) were White; and 1895 of 1946 reporting ethnicity (97.4%) were non-Hispanic. Overall, 435 (22.1%) met DSM-5<\/jats:italic> criteria for presumptive past-year depression, 480 (24.4%) for presumptive past-year PTSD, and 276 (14.0%) for both disorders. Residents who believed that their or their family\u2019s health was harmed by contaminated water (eg, risk ratio [RR] for depression: 2.23; 95% CI, 1.80-2.76), who had low confidence in public-official information (eg, RR for PTSD, 1.44; 95% CI, 1.16-1.78), who had previous exposure to PTEs (eg, RR for both disorders: 5.06; 95% CI, 2.99-8.58), or who reported low social support (eg, RR for PTSD, 2.58; 95% CI, 1.94-3.43) had significantly higher risk for depression, PTSD, and comorbidity. PTEs involving prior physical or sexual assault were especially potent risk factors (eg, both disorders: RR, 7.30; 95% CI, 4.30-12.42). Only 685 respondents (34.8%) were ever offered mental health services to assist with water-crisis\u2013related psychiatric symptoms; most (543 [79.3%]) who were offered services utilized them.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>Conclusions and Relevance<\/jats:title>In this cross-sectional study of psychiatric disorder in Flint, Michigan, presumptive depression and PTSD were highly prevalent 5 years after the onset of the water crisis. These findings suggest that public-works environmental disasters have large-scale, long-term psychological sequelae. The Flint community may require expanded mental health services to meet continued psychiatric need. National disaster preparedness and response programs should consider psychiatric outcomes.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2022.32556","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,20]],"date-time":"2022-09-20T15:02:14Z","timestamp":1663686134000},"page":"e2232556","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Prevalence of Depression and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Flint, Michigan, 5 Years After the Onset of the Water Crisis"],"prefix":"10.1001","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Aaron","family":"Reuben","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angela","family":"Moreland","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical 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