{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]],"date-time":"2026-08-05T03:09:41Z","timestamp":1785899381812,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"American Medical Association (AMA)","issue":"12","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JAMA Netw Open"],"abstract":"<jats:sec id=\"ab-zoi241370-4\"><jats:title>Importance<\/jats:title><jats:p>Understanding exposure to air pollution is important to public health, and disparities in the spatial distribution of regulatory air quality monitors could lead to exposure misclassification bias.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"ab-zoi241370-5\"><jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title><jats:p>To determine whether racial and ethnic disparities exist in Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulatory air quality monitor locations in the US.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"ab-zoi241370-6\"><jats:title>Design, Setting, and Participants<\/jats:title><jats:p>This national cross-sectional study included air quality monitors in the EPA Air Quality System regulatory monitoring repository, as well as 2022 American Community Survey Census block group estimates for racial and ethnic composition and population size. Bayesian mixed-effects models of the count of criteria pollutant monitors measuring an area were used, adjusting for population size and accounting for spatial autocorrelation. Data were analyzed from March to June 2024.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"ab-zoi241370-7\"><jats:title>Exposure<\/jats:title><jats:p>Census block group\u2013level racial and ethnic composition.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"ab-zoi241370-8\"><jats:title>Main Outcome and Measures<\/jats:title><jats:p>Number of regulatory monitors measuring a census block group by criteria pollutant (particulate matter [PM], ozone [O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>], nitrogen dioxide [NO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>], sulfur dioxide [SO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>], lead [Pb], and carbon monoxide [CO]).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"ab-zoi241370-9\"><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>This analysis included 329\u202f725\u202f481 individuals living in 237\u202f631 block groups in the US (1\u202f936\u202f842 [0.6%] American Indian and Alaska Native, 18\u202f554\u202f697 [5.6%] Asian, 40\u202f196\u202f302 [12.2%] Black, 60\u202f806\u202f969 [18.4%] Hispanic, 555\u202f712 [0.2%] Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 196\u202f010\u202f370 [59.4%] White, 1\u202f208\u202f267 [0.3%] some other race, and 10\u202f456\u202f322 [0.4%] 2 or more races). Adjusting for population size, monitoring disparities were identified for each criteria pollutant. Relative to the White non-Latino population, all groups were associated with fewer NO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>, O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>, Pb, and PM monitors. Disparities were consistently largest for Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander populations, followed by American Indian and Alaska Native populations and those of 2 or more races. An increase in percentage of Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander race was associated with fewer monitors for SO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 0.91; 95% BCI, 0.90-0.91), CO (aOR, 0.95; 95% BCI, 0.94-0.95), O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub> (aOR, 0.95; 95% BCI, 0.94-0.95), NO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> (aOR, 0.97; 95% BCI, 0.91-0.94), and PM (aOR, 0.96; 95% BCI, 0.95-0.96). An increase in the percentage of those of Asian race was associated with slightly more SO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> (aOR, 1.04; 95% BCI, 1.03-1.04) monitors.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"ab-zoi241370-10\"><jats:title>Conclusions and Relevance<\/jats:title><jats:p>This cross-sectional study of racial and ethnic disparities in the location of EPA regulatory monitors determined that data may not be equitably representative of air quality, particularly for areas with predominantly Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander or American Indian or Alaska Native populations. Integration of multiple data sources may aid in filling monitoring gaps across race and ethnicity. Where possible, researchers should quantify uncertainty in exposure estimates.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2024.49005","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,4]],"date-time":"2024-12-04T16:00:43Z","timestamp":1733328043000},"page":"e2449005","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Regulatory Air Quality Monitor Locations in the US"],"prefix":"10.1001","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Brenna C.","family":"Kelly","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Population Health Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City"},{"name":"School of Environment, Society and Sustainability, University of Utah, Salt Lake City"},{"name":"Departments of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas J.","family":"Cova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environment, Society and Sustainability, University of Utah, Salt Lake City"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michelle P.","family":"Debbink","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Population Health Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City"},{"name":"Departments of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tracy","family":"Onega","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Population Health Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Simon C.","family":"Brewer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environment, Society and Sustainability, University of Utah, Salt Lake City"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,4]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"zoi241370r2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2021.04.014","article-title":"Inequities in air pollution exposure and gaps in air quality monitoring.","volume":"148","author":"Nicolaou","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"zoi241370r3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1257\/pandp.20191063","article-title":"Discrimination in ambient air pollution monitoring?","volume":"109","author":"Grainger","year":"2019","journal-title":"AEA Pap Proc"},{"issue":"17","key":"zoi241370r7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6212","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17176212","article-title":"Impact of air pollution on asthma outcomes.","volume":"17","author":"Tiotiu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"issue":"10","key":"zoi241370r8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.1038\/s41569-020-0371-2","article-title":"Environmental determinants of cardiovascular disease: lessons learned from air pollution.","volume":"17","author":"Al-Kindi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat Rev Cardiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"zoi241370r9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-021-00742-x","article-title":"Emulating causal dose-response relations between air pollutants and mortality in the Medicare population.","volume":"20","author":"Wei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ Health"},{"issue":"6","key":"zoi241370r10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1755","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph8061755","article-title":"Making the environmental justice grade: the relative burden of air pollution exposure in the United States.","volume":"8","author":"Miranda","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"issue":"3","key":"zoi241370r11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2021.306603","article-title":"Socioeconomic disparities of low-cost air quality sensors in California, 2017-2020.","volume":"112","author":"Sun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"issue":"12","key":"zoi241370r12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP8584","article-title":"Disparities in air pollution exposure in the United States by race\/ethnicity and income, 1990-2010.","volume":"129","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"issue":"7892","key":"zoi241370r13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-04190-y","article-title":"Air pollution exposure disparities across US population and income groups.","volume":"601","author":"Jbaily","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"1","key":"zoi241370r21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00116466","article-title":"Bayesian image restoration, with two applications in spatial statistics.","volume":"43","author":"Besag","year":"1991","journal-title":"Ann Inst Stat Math"},{"issue":"1","key":"zoi241370r22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-statistics-060116-054045","article-title":"Bayesian computing with INLA: a review.","volume":"4","author":"Rue","year":"2017","journal-title":"Annu Rev Stat Appl"},{"issue":"1","key":"zoi241370r23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1214\/16-STS576","article-title":"Penalising model component complexity: a principled, practical approach to constructing priors.","volume":"32","author":"Simpson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Stat Sci"},{"issue":"6","key":"zoi241370r25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4617","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-14-4617-2021","article-title":"Development and application of a United States wide correction for PM2.5 data collected with the PurpleAir sensor.","volume":"4","author":"Barkjohn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos Meas Tech"},{"issue":"9","key":"zoi241370r26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1411","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings12091411","article-title":"Application of low-cost sensors for accurate ambient temperature monitoring.","volume":"12","author":"Mobaraki","year":"2022","journal-title":"Buildings"},{"issue":"9","key":"zoi241370r28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/ab9334","article-title":"Estimating PM2.5 in Southern California using satellite data: factors that affect model performance.","volume":"15","author":"Stowell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ Res Lett"},{"key":"zoi241370r1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-13-9992-3_3","volume-title":"Criteria Air Pollutants and Their Impact on Environmental Health","author":"Saxena","year":"2019"},{"key":"zoi241370r17","volume-title":"Probability, Random Variables and Stochastic Processes","author":"Papoulis","year":"2002","edition":"4th ed"},{"key":"zoi241370r19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511803161","volume-title":"Causality","author":"Pearl","year":"2009","edition":"2nd ed"},{"key":"zoi241370r20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1201\/9781032641522","volume-title":"Spatial Statistics for Data Science: Theory and Practice with R","author":"Moraga","year":"2023"},{"key":"zoi241370r4","unstructured":"Vanderpool? R. EPA scientists develop and evaluate Federal Reference and Equivalent Methods for measuring key air pollutants. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. December 19, 2023. Accessed April 29, 2024. https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/air-research\/epa-scientists-develop-and-evaluate-federal-reference-equivalent-methods-measuring-key"},{"key":"zoi241370r5","unstructured":"US Environmental Protection Agency. Technical information about fused air quality surface using downscaling tool: metadata description. July 11, 2016. Accessed June 14, 2023. https:\/\/19january2017snapshot.epa.gov\/sites\/production\/files\/2016-07\/documents\/data_fusion_meta_file_july_2016.pdf"},{"key":"zoi241370r6","unstructured":"US Environmental Protection Agency. About AQS data. November 17, 2021. Accessed June 14, 2023. https:\/\/aqs.epa.gov\/aqsweb\/documents\/about_aqs_data.html#sites-monitors-and-collocation"},{"key":"zoi241370r14","unstructured":"US EPA. Air quality system (AQS). US Environmental Protection Agency. 2024. Accessed October 26, 2024. https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/aqs"},{"key":"zoi241370r15","unstructured":"Geography Division U.S. Census Bureau. Centers of population computation for the United States, 1950\u20132020. 2021. Accessed September 27, 2024. https:\/\/www2.census.gov\/geo\/pdfs\/reference\/cenpop2020\/COP2020_documentation.pdf"},{"key":"zoi241370r16","unstructured":"Walker? K, Herman? M. tidycensus: Load US census boundary and attribute data as \u201ctidyverse\u201d and \u2019sf\u2019-ready data frame. Published online 2023. Accessed June 8, 2023. https:\/\/walker-data.com\/tidycensus\/"},{"key":"zoi241370r18","unstructured":"Environmental Protection Agency. AQS (air quality system) user guide, issue 6. 2022. Accessed May 30, 2023. https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/system\/files\/documents\/2022-08\/aqs_user_guide.pdf"},{"key":"zoi241370r24","unstructured":"Monte? LM, Shin? HB. Broad diversity of Asian, Native Hawaiian, Pacific Islander population. 2022. Accessed June 30, 2024. https:\/\/www.census.gov\/library\/stories\/2022\/05\/aanhpi-population-diverse-geographically-dispersed.html"},{"key":"zoi241370r27","unstructured":"Gupta? P, Follette-Cook? M. Satellite remote sensing of air quality. NASA Applied Remote Sensing Training Program. 2018. Accessed May 15, 2024. https:\/\/appliedsciences.nasa.gov\/join-mission\/training\/english\/arset-satellite-remote-sensing-air-quality"}],"container-title":["JAMA Network Open"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/jamanetwork.com\/journals\/jamanetworkopen\/articlepdf\/2827225\/kelly_2024_oi_241370_1732143043.89756.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,4]],"date-time":"2024-12-04T16:00:49Z","timestamp":1733328049000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/jamanetwork.com\/journals\/jamanetworkopen\/fullarticle\/2827225"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,4]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,2]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2024.49005","relation":{},"ISSN":["2574-3805"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2574-3805","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,4]]}}}