{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,4]],"date-time":"2026-07-04T01:07:36Z","timestamp":1783127256437,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"American Medical Association (AMA)","issue":"7","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JAMA Netw Open"],"abstract":"Importance<\/jats:title>There are few effective pharmacotherapies for treating eating disorders (EDs). High rates of substance use among individuals with EDs suggest potential self-medication of symptoms.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>Objective<\/jats:title>To explore the experiences of individuals with EDs regarding use of prescribed and nonprescribed drugs.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>Design, Setting, and Participants<\/jats:title>This survey study assessed responses to the Medications and Other Drugs for Eating Disorders (MED-FED) survey, which was advertised internationally using social media, online forums, and clinical services and recruited adults who self-reported an ED or disordered eating from November 10, 2022, to May 31, 2023. The online survey queried about recent prescribed and nonprescribed drug use as well as the perceived benefits and harms of each substance.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>Exposures<\/jats:title>EDs or disordered eating and co-occurring mental health conditions. Substances evaluated included caffeine, alcohol, nicotine, cannabis, prescription psychotropics, psychedelics, ketamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (or ecstasy), stimulants, opioids, and other drugs.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>Main Outcomes and Measures<\/jats:title>Respondents described drug use over the past 12 months. For each drug used, they rated their agreement or disagreement on a 5-point Likert scale (\u22122, strongly disagree; \u22121, disagree; 0, neutral; 1, agree; or 2, strongly agree) with the following 3 statements: (1) this medication\/drug makes my eating disorder symptoms better; (2) this medication\/drug has overall benefits for my mental health; and (3) this medication\/drug has unpleasant side effects.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>Results<\/jats:title>There were 7648 participants recruited, of whom 6612 completed the demographic portion, and 5123 completed the entire survey. Among the 6612 respondents (mean [SD] age, 24.3 [7.7] years), the sample was predominantly female (6217 [94.0%]), and most resided in Australia (1981 [30.0%]), the UK (1409 [21.3%]), or the US (1195 [18.0%]). Diagnosed EDs included 2696 (40.8%) individuals with anorexia nervosa, 1258 (19.0%) with bulimia nervosa, 757 (11.4%) with binge-eating disorder, and 589 (8.9%) with avoidant\/restrictive food intake disorder. Many respondents (2493 [37.7%]) were undiagnosed. Psychiatric comorbidities were highly prevalent; depression was reported by 4333 respondents (65.5%). Cannabis and psychedelics were highest-rated for improving ED symptoms. Prescription antidepressants were rated highly for overall mental health but not for ED symptoms, with the exception of fluoxetine for bulimia nervosa and lisdexamfetamine for binge-eating disorder. Alcohol, nicotine, and tobacco were rated as the most harmful drugs.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>Conclusions and Relevance<\/jats:title>The findings of this survey study of prescription and nonprescription drug use suggest that cannabis and psychedelics were perceived by survey respondents as efficacious in alleviating their ED symptoms, which supports further research in this area. Prescription psychotropics were perceived as being relatively ineffective for ED symptoms but beneficial to general mental health.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2025.22406","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,22]],"date-time":"2025-07-22T15:00:30Z","timestamp":1753196430000},"page":"e2522406","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Prescription and Nonprescription Drug Use Among People With Eating Disorders"],"prefix":"10.1001","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Sarah-Catherine","family":"Rodan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"},{"name":"School of Psychology, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"},{"name":"InsideOut Institute for Eating Disorders, Central Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sarah","family":"Maguire","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"InsideOut Institute for Eating Disorders, Central Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"},{"name":"Sydney Local Health District, New South Wales Health, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Noah","family":"Meez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kayla","family":"Greenstien","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Garen","family":"Zartarian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University College London, London, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katherine L.","family":"Mills","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Matilda Centre for Research in Mental Health and Substance Use, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anastasia","family":"Suraev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miguel A.","family":"Bedoya-P\u00e9rez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"},{"name":"School of Psychology, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Iain S.","family":"McGregor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"},{"name":"School of Psychology, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,22]]},"reference":[{"issue":"14","key":"zoi250659r1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1242","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2025.0132","article-title":"Eating disorders: a review.","volume":"333","author":"Attia","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"1","key":"zoi250659r2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1186\/s40337-023-00833-9","article-title":"Pharmacotherapy, alternative and adjunctive therapies for eating disorders: findings from a rapid review.","volume":"11","author":"Rodan","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Eat Disord"},{"issue":"10227","key":"zoi250659r4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30059-3","article-title":"Eating disorders.","volume":"395","author":"Treasure","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"7","key":"zoi250659r5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1001\/archgenpsychiatry.2011.74","article-title":"Mortality rates in patients with anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders. a meta-analysis of 36 studies.","volume":"68","author":"Arcelus","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arch Gen Psychiatry"},{"key":"zoi250659r6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2017.08.023","article-title":"Eating disorders and suicidality: what we know, what we don\u2019t know, and suggestions for future research.","volume":"22","author":"Smith","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr Opin Psychol"},{"issue":"6","key":"zoi250659r7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1097\/YCO.0000000000000641","article-title":"Review of the burden of eating disorders: mortality, disability, costs, quality of life, and family burden.","volume":"33","author":"van Hoeken","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr Opin Psychiatry"},{"issue":"5","key":"zoi250659r8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.23486","article-title":"Social and economic cost of eating disorders in the United States: evidence to inform policy action.","volume":"54","author":"Streatfeild","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Eat Disord"},{"issue":"2-3","key":"zoi250659r9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2010.08.005","article-title":"Gender differences in outcome of eating disorders: a retrospective cohort study.","volume":"186","author":"St\u00f8ving","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"issue":"5","key":"zoi250659r10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.23495","article-title":"The 17-year outcome of 62 adult patients with longstanding eating disorders\u2014a prospective study.","volume":"54","author":"Eielsen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Eat Disord"},{"issue":"Pt B","key":"zoi250659r11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2015.06.007","article-title":"New treatment approaches for severe and enduring eating disorders.","volume":"152","author":"Treasure","year":"2015","journal-title":"Physiol Behav"},{"issue":"7","key":"zoi250659r12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.20856","article-title":"Eating disorder symptomatology and substance use disorders: prevalence and shared risk in a population based twin sample.","volume":"43","author":"Baker","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int J Eat Disord"},{"issue":"6","key":"zoi250659r13","first-page":"547","article-title":"Exploring the relationship between eating disorder symptoms and substance use severity in women with comorbid PTSD and substance use disorders.","volume":"41","author":"Killeen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse"},{"issue":"1","key":"zoi250659r14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.20670","article-title":"Substance use disorders in women with anorexia nervosa.","volume":"43","author":"Root","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int J Eat Disord"},{"issue":"1","key":"zoi250659r15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291709005662","article-title":"Patterns of co-morbidity of eating disorders and substance use in Swedish females.","volume":"40","author":"Root","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychol Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"zoi250659r16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1002\/erv.936","article-title":"Meta-analysis on drugs in people with eating disorders.","volume":"17","author":"Calero-Elvira","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur Eat Disord Rev"},{"key":"zoi250659r17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2019.01.007","article-title":"Prevalence of substance use disorder comorbidity among individuals with eating disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"273","author":"Bahji","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"issue":"8","key":"zoi250659r18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3751","DOI":"10.1007\/s40519-022-01455-x","article-title":"Ketogenic diet and ketamine infusion treatment to target chronic persistent eating disorder psychopathology in anorexia nervosa: a pilot study.","volume":"27","author":"Calabrese","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eat Weight Disord"},{"issue":"5","key":"zoi250659r19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ccr3.3869","article-title":"A longitudinal case series of IM ketamine for patients with severe and enduring eating disorders and comorbid treatment-resistant depression.","volume":"9","author":"Schwartz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin Case Rep"},{"issue":"8","key":"zoi250659r20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1947","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-023-02455-9","article-title":"Psilocybin therapy for females with anorexia nervosa: a phase 1, open-label feasibility study.","volume":"29","author":"Peck","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"zoi250659r21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.22173","article-title":"Dronabinol in severe, enduring anorexia nervosa: a randomized controlled trial.","volume":"47","author":"Andries","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int J Eat Disord"},{"issue":"2","key":"zoi250659r22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1007\/s40519-018-0619-6","article-title":"An exploratory study of experiences with conventional eating disorder treatment and ceremonial ayahuasca for the healing of eating disorders.","volume":"25","author":"Renelli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eat Weight Disord"},{"key":"zoi250659r23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.26502\/fjwhd.2644-28840044","article-title":"Ketamine in a patient with comorbid anorexia and MDD.","volume":"3","author":"Dechant","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Womens Health Dev"},{"issue":"8","key":"zoi250659r24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amp.2021.08.004","article-title":"Psilocybin in the treatment of anorexia nervosa: the English transition of a French 1959 case study.","volume":"179","author":"Verroust","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann Med Psychol (Paris)"},{"issue":"2","key":"zoi250659r25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbi.2008.08.010","article-title":"Research electronic data capture (REDCap)\u2014a metadata-driven methodology and workflow process for providing translational research informatics support.","volume":"42","author":"Harris","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Biomed Inform"},{"issue":"1","key":"zoi250659r32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1186\/s40337-022-00597-8","article-title":"Screening, assessment and diagnosis in the eating disorders: findings from a rapid review.","volume":"10","author":"Bryant","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Eat Disord"},{"issue":"1","key":"zoi250659r33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1186\/s40337-015-0080-0","article-title":"Medication and psychotherapy in eating disorders: is there a gap between research and practice?","volume":"3","author":"Cooper","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Eat Disord"},{"key":"zoi250659r34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2022.114930","article-title":"Psychiatric medication use by Canadian adults prior to entering an outpatient eating disorders program: types and combinations of medications, predictors of being on a medication, and clinical considerations.","volume":"317","author":"MacNeil","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"issue":"7","key":"zoi250659r35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1351","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.162.7.1351","article-title":"A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of quetiapine in the treatment of bipolar I or II depression.","volume":"162","author":"Calabrese","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"issue":"3","key":"zoi250659r36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.3390\/ph14030238","article-title":"Atypical antipsychotics and metabolic syndrome: from molecular mechanisms to clinical differences.","volume":"14","author":"Carli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pharmaceuticals (Basel)"},{"issue":"6","key":"zoi250659r37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.9740\/mhc.2016.11.308","article-title":"Evaluation of the use of low-dose quetiapine and the risk of metabolic consequences: a retrospective review.","volume":"6","author":"Carr","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ment Health Clin"},{"issue":"1","key":"zoi250659r38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1097\/YIC.0b013e32834ce13f","article-title":"Efficacy and tolerability of venlafaxine versus specific serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treatment of major depressive disorder: a meta-analysis of published studies.","volume":"27","author":"de Silva","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int Clin Psychopharmacol"},{"issue":"4","key":"zoi250659r39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1097\/DBP.0b013e3180327917","article-title":"Are girls with ADHD at risk for eating disorders? results from a controlled, five-year prospective study.","volume":"28","author":"Biederman","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Dev Behav Pediatr"},{"issue":"12","key":"zoi250659r40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.22643","article-title":"The risk of eating disorders comorbid with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"49","author":"Nazar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int J Eat Disord"},{"key":"zoi250659r41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2015.00242","article-title":"Management of bipolar depression with lamotrigine: an antiepileptic mood stabilizer.","volume":"6","author":"Prabhavalkar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front Pharmacol"},{"issue":"1","key":"zoi250659r42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2011.10.018","article-title":"Cannabinoid facilitation of behavioral and biochemical hedonic taste responses.","volume":"63","author":"De Luca","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"issue":"1","key":"zoi250659r43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954422414000080","article-title":"The endocannabinoid system and appetite: relevance for food reward.","volume":"27","author":"Jager","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nutr Res Rev"},{"issue":"11","key":"zoi250659r44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1825","DOI":"10.1080\/10826084.2020.1766503","article-title":"Expectancies about the effects of cannabis use on eating disorder symptoms.","volume":"55","author":"Scharmer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Subst Use Misuse"},{"issue":"5","key":"zoi250659r45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1177\/0022167817709585","article-title":"Patients\u2019 accounts of increased \u201cconnectedness\u201d and \u201cacceptance\u201d after psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression.","volume":"57","author":"Watts","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Humanist Psychol"},{"issue":"12","key":"zoi250659r46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1165","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881116675512","article-title":"Rapid and sustained symptom reduction following psilocybin treatment for anxiety and depression in patients with life-threatening cancer: a randomized controlled trial.","volume":"30","author":"Ross","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Psychopharmacol"},{"issue":"12","key":"zoi250659r47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881116675513","article-title":"Psilocybin produces substantial and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with life-threatening cancer: a randomized double-blind trial.","volume":"30","author":"Griffiths","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Psychopharmacol"},{"issue":"5","key":"zoi250659r48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"956","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.23892","article-title":"Eating disorders and substance use: examining associations among US college students.","volume":"56","author":"Qeadan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Eat Disord"},{"issue":"1","key":"zoi250659r49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1556\/2006.2021.00087","article-title":"Food addiction and lifetime alcohol and illicit drugs use in specific eating disorders.","volume":"11","author":"Miranda-Olivos","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Behav Addict"},{"issue":"1-2","key":"zoi250659r50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2008.04.015","article-title":"Present and lifetime comorbidity of tobacco, alcohol and drug use in eating disorders: a European multicenter study.","volume":"97","author":"Krug","year":"2008","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend"},{"key":"zoi250659r3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596","volume-title":"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders","author":"American Psychiatric Association","year":"2013","edition":"5th ed"},{"key":"zoi250659r29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-21706-2","volume-title":"Modern Applied Statistics With S","author":"Venables","year":"2002","edition":"4th ed"},{"key":"zoi250659r26","unstructured":"National statement on ethical conduct in human research 2023. Australian Government. Accessed February 5, 2025. https:\/\/www.nhmrc.gov.au\/about-us\/publications\/national-statement-ethical-conduct-human-research-2023"},{"key":"zoi250659r27","unstructured":"The R Project for Statistical Computing. Computer program. Version 4.3.2. The R Foundation. Accessed November 2024. https:\/\/www.R-project.org\/"},{"key":"zoi250659r28","unstructured":"Christensen? RHB. ordinal, an R package for regression models for ordinal data. Version 2023.12-4.1. Accessed November 2024. https:\/\/CRAN.R-project.org\/package=ordinal"},{"key":"zoi250659r30","unstructured":"Gross? J, Ligges? U. nortest, an R package for tests for normality. Version 1.0-4. July 30, 2015. Accessed November 20, 2024. https:\/\/cran.r-project.org\/web\/\/packages\/\/nortest\/nortest.pdf"},{"key":"zoi250659r31","unstructured":"Fox? J, Weisberg? S. An R Companion to Applied Regression. 3rd ed. Sage Publications; 2019."}],"container-title":["JAMA Network Open"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/jamanetwork.com\/journals\/jamanetworkopen\/articlepdf\/2836693\/rodan_2025_oi_250659_1752262282.67097.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,22]],"date-time":"2025-07-22T15:00:31Z","timestamp":1753196431000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/jamanetwork.com\/journals\/jamanetworkopen\/fullarticle\/2836693"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,22]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2025.22406","relation":{},"ISSN":["2574-3805"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2574-3805","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,22]]}}}