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The efficacy of these initiatives is often informed by IVR media comparison studies that examine the learning outcomes of students who learn academic content in IVR versus conventional media. However, the current methodological rigour of research on the use of IVR for learning in STEM education has not yet been established to ensure recommendations concerning its use in education are rooted in rigorous research studies.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Objective<\/jats:title>\n \n The present review aimed to fill this gap in the literature by evaluating published journal articles, conference proceedings, and dissertations (between the years 2013 and 2023) related to\n IVR<\/jats:styled-content>\n comparison studies in\n STEM<\/jats:styled-content>\n education.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Method<\/jats:title>\n \n The 44 articles were evaluated with respect to 13 internal validity controls (i.e., research design, justified sample size, group equivalence, attrition equivalence, operational definitions provided, matched dosage, matched timeframe, matched content, implementation fidelity, practice equivalence with dependent measures [\n DMs<\/jats:styled-content>\n ], equivalent\n DMs<\/jats:styled-content>\n , interrater agreement for\n DM<\/jats:styled-content>\n scoring and technical adequacy of\n DMs<\/jats:styled-content>\n ).\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Results<\/jats:title>\n Results indicated there were no articles that explicitly met all 13 internal validity controls; the average number of control issues was 5.36. When articles were not penalised for missing information, 21 articles adhered to all internal validity controls. As can be seen when comparing these findings, the lack of methodological information was a glaring problem.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n \n These findings indicate that there are both methodological problems and reporting problems in\n IVR<\/jats:styled-content>\n media comparison research that need to be addressed to advance future\n IVR<\/jats:styled-content>\n research. Recommendations for productively moving forward are discussed.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/jcal.70165","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]],"date-time":"2025-12-10T06:32:58Z","timestamp":1765348378000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Systematically Reviewing the Rigour of Immersive Virtual Reality Research in\n STEM<\/scp>\n Education: A Deep Dive Into Threats to Internal Validity"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"42","author":[{"given":"Am\u00e9dee Marchand","family":"Martella","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Georgia Athens Georgia USA"},{"name":"University of California Santa Barbara Santa Barbara California USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8658-1261","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alyssa P.","family":"Lawson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California Santa Barbara Santa Barbara California USA"},{"name":"Landmark College Putney Vermont USA"},{"name":"Colby College Waterville Maine USA"}]},{"given":"Ronald C.","family":"Martella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Colorado Colorado Springs Colorado Springs Colorado USA"}]},{"given":"Kristen","family":"LaBonte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California Santa Barbara Santa Barbara California USA"}]},{"given":"Fangzheng","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California Santa Barbara Santa Barbara California USA"},{"name":"Nanjing Normal University Nanjing China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-7161-0875","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cynthia Y.","family":"Delgado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California Santa Barbara Santa Barbara California USA"}]},{"given":"Mitchell E.","family":"Munns","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California Santa Barbara Santa Barbara California USA"}]},{"given":"Ashleigh Wells","family":"LeRoy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pacific Science & Engineering San Diego California USA"}]},{"given":"Justin A.","family":"Gluck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Colorado Boulder Boulder Colorado USA"}]},{"given":"Richard E.","family":"Mayer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California Santa Barbara Santa Barbara California USA"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_14_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/0144929X.2016.1212931"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.25304\/rlt.v26.2140"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2019.1703008"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2008.134767"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1516686113"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0003\u2010066X.63.9.839"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_10_1","volume-title":"Carnegie Mellon University's XRTC Will Drive Research in VR, AR Innovations","author":"Aupperlee A.","year":"2023"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.21449\/ijate.946743"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978\u20103\u2010030\u201050020\u20107_25"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12874\u2010019\u20100717\u20109"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15205436.2021.1925300"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_15_1","volume-title":"Infinite Reality: Avatars, Eternal Life, New Worlds, and the Dawn of the Virtual Revolution","author":"Blascovich J.","year":"2011"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_16_1","unstructured":"**Bukoski R. 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