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However, there is a limited exploration into how the learner's cognitive traits, particularly cognitive flexibility, influence learning outcomes across different media.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study aims to investigate the impact of cognitive flexibility on learning outcomes when using two distinct instructional media: an instructional game and a slideshow lesson.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A total of 142 undergraduate students participated in this study, engaging in a 1.5\u2010h session focusing on epidemiology. They were randomly assigned to either the instructional game\n                      <jats:italic>Crystal Island<\/jats:italic>\n                      or a slideshow lesson covering the same content. Their trait cognitive flexibility and learning outcomes were evaluated through post\u2010questionnaires and posttests.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results and Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The study found that students with higher cognitive flexibility scored better on transfer tests. Additionally, the slides group outperformed the game group. Interestingly, no significant interaction was observed between cognitive flexibility and the assigned learning medium. Overall, this study replicated some findings from previous media comparison studies and highlighted the need to further explore cognitive flexibility as a key individual trait in multimedia learning.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/jcal.70169","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T07:37:00Z","timestamp":1764833820000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Role of Trait Cognitive Flexibility on Game\u2010Based Learning: A Media\u2010Comparison Study"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"42","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3575-9039","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fangzheng","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Nanjing Normal University  Nanjing China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8630-132X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qiyang","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Michigan State University  East Lansing Michigan USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4055-6938","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Richard E.","family":"Mayer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California, Santa Barbara  Santa Barbara California USA"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_14_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0025595"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0735633115620431"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s41465\u2010017\u20100040\u20105"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/00346543231167795"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/09637214241287171"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence10030049"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674419377"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00140130802376067"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2010.00008"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10608\u2010009\u20109276\u20104"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467\u20108535.2009.01032.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3611039"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0028088"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0070350"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12144\u2010024\u201005642\u20100"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jcal.12057"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/tea.21765"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2025.2450652"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327809jls0902_2"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2190\/4t1b\u2010hbp0\u20103f7e\u2010j4pn"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.3492"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_2_14_23_1","first-page":"309","article-title":"Designing Hypertext on Transfusion Medicine Using Cognitive Flexibility Theory","volume":"1","author":"Jonassen D.","year":"1992","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14703297.2025.2484613"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jcal.12938"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327809jls0303_2"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.14180"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2024.101413"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00426\u2010021\u201001632\u20100"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/te.2021.3057849"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jcal.12654"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2466\/pr0.1995.76.2.623"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/9427.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-010418-102744"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_35_1","first-page":"472","volume-title":"The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning","author":"Mayer R. 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