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Existing AI writing tools show promise but are often tested in brief, isolated interventions, so little is known about which AI\u2010supported strategies are most effective.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      In a four\u2010arm randomised controlled trial (\n                      <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u2009383), three AI\u2010enhanced nudges (goal\u2010setting, feedback, social norm) were compared with an active control across 18\u2009\u00d7\u200990\u2010min sessions (total dose\u2009=\u200927\u2009h). Posttest group differences were large (Welch's\n                      <jats:italic>F<\/jats:italic>\n                      (3, 188.454)\u2009=\u20091447.280,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&lt;\u20090.001,\n                      <jats:italic>\u03b7<\/jats:italic>\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      \u2009=\u20090.895), with the goal\u2010setting nudge yielding the highest writing performance (\n                      <jats:italic>M<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u200920.24\/25, 81.0% of maximum).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>University EFL students were randomly assigned to three AI\u2010enhanced nudge conditions (goal\u2010setting, feedback, social norm) or an active control in a pretest\u2013posttest design. Interventions drew on social cognitive theory (SCT) and nonlinear dynamic language learning theory (NDLLT) and were delivered over 18\u2009\u00d7\u200990\u2010min sessions. Writing performance, motivation and self\u2010efficacy were assessed with validated instruments, complemented by interviews and reflective essays.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results and Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Goal\u2010setting nudges produced the largest gains in writing performance, motivation and self\u2010efficacy, with feedback and social norm nudges also outperforming the active control. Effect sizes were large: goal\u2010setting versus control \u0394\n                      <jats:italic>M<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u200911.01, 95% CI [10.51, 11.52] for performance; \u0394\n                      <jats:italic>M<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20093.50, 95% CI [3.16, 3.83] for motivation; \u0394\n                      <jats:italic>M<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20093.22, 95% CI [2.95, 3.49] for self\u2010efficacy. Students described AI\u2010enhanced goal\u2010setting as making tasks more manageable and progress more visible, while AI feedback and peer comparisons supported revision and engagement. Overall, the findings suggest that carefully designed, instructor\u2010mediated AI nudges can substantially enhance EFL academic writing when used to supplement, rather than replace, human teaching. Centring on three research questions, RQ1 tested differential effects of the three nudges versus control on writing performance, motivation and self\u2010efficacy; RQ2 examined learners' perceived effectiveness and experiences across modalities; RQ3 explored the correspondence between quantitative performance gains and qualitative learner insights.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/jcal.70179","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,3]],"date-time":"2026-01-03T00:39:16Z","timestamp":1767400756000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Enhancing University\n                    <scp>EFL<\/scp>\n                    Learners' Writing Performance: The Role of\n                    <scp>AI<\/scp>\n                    \u2010 Enhanced Goal\u2010Setting, Feedback and Social Norm Interventions"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"42","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-6273-7094","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yan","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Foreign Studies, Henan University of Urban Construction  Pingdingshan China"},{"name":"College of Arts and Sciences University of the Cordilleras  Baguio City Philippines"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_16_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chbr.2024.100566"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/2331186X.2025.2505304"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.24093\/awej\/ChatGPT.2"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s40468\u2010025\u201000375\u20108"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/07356331241307297"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s44217\u2010025\u201000434\u20105"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/app152111476"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsc.2025.101850"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsc.2025.101766"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/09588221.2021.1912104"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2018.11.009"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639\u2010025\u201013388\u2010w"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/berj.4120"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_15_1","volume-title":"Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory","author":"Bandura A.","year":"1986"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4278\/0890-1171-12.1.8"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s41239\u2010023\u201000427\u20100"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4018\/979-8-3373-3678-7.ch011"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/0969595980050102"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1191\/1478088706qp063oa"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_16_21_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Online Writing Class: EFL University Students' Perception of Teachers' Strategies in Alleviating Their Writing Anxiety","volume":"42","author":"Cahyono B. 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