{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T02:01:39Z","timestamp":1776391299090,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,17]],"date-time":"2026-02-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771286400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,17]],"date-time":"2026-02-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771286400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["62307011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62307011"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Computer Assisted Learning"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The integration of generative artificial intelligence (GAI) tools like GPT into programming education offers transformative potential through personalised guidance and instant feedback, yet risks fostering overreliance and superficial learning due to their tendency to deliver direct, context\u2010free answers.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This quasi\u2010experimental study addresses this gap by proposing a Socratic questioning framework to optimise GAI\u2010facilitated programming instruction, emphasising critical thinking over passive solution retrieval.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We compared two pedagogical approaches: GAI\u2010Scaffolded Learning (GSL), where GPT employs structured Socratic dialogue to guide problem\u2010solving and GAI\u2010Direct Learning (GDL), which provides immediate answers without guided inquiry. This research collected learners' programming behaviours, interactions data with GPT from screen recordings and platform log data and perceptions data. This research further utilised multiple learning analytics approaches (i.e., click stream analysis, lag\u2010sequential analysis, epistemic network analysis [ENA] and statistics) to compare learners' programming behaviours, interaction patterns and perceptions under two approaches.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results and Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Through an analysis of 80 college students' programming behaviours, interaction qualities and perceptions, we found some intriguing results. First, GSL engaged in cyclical, reflective practices (debugging, Socratic questioning, console use), while GDL prioritised rapid fixes via trial\u2010and\u2010error with GPT code, risking superficial mimicry and over\u2010reliance on external resources. Second, ENA highlighted GSL's deeper engagement through interconnected feedback, emotional support and iterative inquiry, reducing frustration and sustaining persistence and GDL interactions focused on surface\u2010level queries, lacking scaffolding for emotional\/heuristic integration. Third, GSL maintained positive attitudes due to structured prompts aligning expectations and easing cognitive load. GDL attitudes declined from mismatched expectations and frustration.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Implications<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Based on these findings, the study proposes pedagogical and developmental implications for future design and development of AI\u2010augmented curricula, providing actionable insights for educators seeking to harness GAI's potential while nurturing critical thinking in programming education.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/jcal.70210","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T00:05:52Z","timestamp":1771373152000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["When Generative\n                    <scp>AI<\/scp>\n                    Meets Socratic Method: Investigating Programming Learning Dynamics Through Behaviours, Interaction Qualities and Perceptions"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"42","author":[{"given":"Dan","family":"Sun","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Education Modernization Research Institute of Hangzhou Normal University (Zhejiang Provincial Key Think Tank)  Zhejiang Hangzhou China"}]},{"given":"Yi","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Education Modernization Research Institute of Hangzhou Normal University (Zhejiang Provincial Key Think Tank)  Zhejiang Hangzhou China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3345-4116","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jie","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Education Zhejiang University  Zhejiang Hangzhou China"}]},{"given":"Zhanshan","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Education Modernization Research Institute of Hangzhou Normal University (Zhejiang Provincial Key Think Tank)  Zhejiang Hangzhou China"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_13_2_1","volume-title":"A Bibliometric Exposition and Review on Leveraging LLMs for Programming Education","author":"Amos J. P.","year":"2025"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/0144929X.2022.2083981"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_4_1","unstructured":"Avila\u2010Chauvet L. D.Mej\u00eda andC. O.Acosta Quiroz.2023.\u201cChatGpt as a Support Tool for Online Behavioral Task Programming.\u201dAccessed February 10 2025.https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4329020."},{"key":"e_1_2_13_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.58496\/MJCSC\/2023\/002"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_6_1","unstructured":"Chang E. Y.2024.\u201cSocraSynth: Multi\u2010LLM Reasoning With Conditional Statistics.\u201dPreprint arXiv January 19.https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2402.06634."},{"key":"e_1_2_13_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10956-023-10039-y"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/249008"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/nup.12240"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijinfomgt.2023.102642"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_11_1","volume-title":"GPTutor: A ChatGPT\u2010Powered Programming Tool for Code Explanation","author":"Eason C.","year":"2023"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2025.1506752"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033\u20102909.101.2.312"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2018.10.057"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeai.2022.100055"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0173584"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He H. H.Zhang andD.Roth.2024.\u201cSocreval: Large Language Models With the Socratic Method for Reference\u2010Free Reasoning Evaluation.\u201dPreprint arXiv December 17.https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2310.00074.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2024.findings-naacl.175"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5840\/thinking19888134"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2196\/58195"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_20_1","unstructured":"ICOURSE.2024.\u201cPython Programming Language (Issue 27).\u201dAccessed January 28 2024.https:\/\/www.python123.io\/index\/courses\/13113."},{"key":"e_1_2_13_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639\u2010023\u201011834\u20101"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1615\/JMachLearnModelComput.2023048492"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_23_1","unstructured":"Khan Academy.2024.\u201cCalifornia District Pages.\u201dAccessed March 10 2024.https:\/\/districts.khanacademy.org\/khanmigo."},{"key":"e_1_2_13_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3352\/jeehp.2023.20.38"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15326985ep4102_1"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/00336882231162868"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3233\/FAIA240195"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1504\/ijmlo.2024.141836"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4304\/jltr.5.6.1236\u20101244"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02188791.2021.1985430"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18608\/jla.2025.8575"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_32_1","unstructured":"Ma T. R.Chen A. T.Li andH.Liu.2024.\u201cSocratic ChatGPT: Theory Design and Empirical Evaluations.\u201dPACIS 2024 Proceedings. 12.https:\/\/aisel.aisnet.org\/pacis2024\/track14_educ\/track14_educ\/12."},{"key":"e_1_2_13_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.30605\/onoma.v9i1.2221"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-40286-9_7"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2018.1558257"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_36_1","volume-title":"Socratic Method and Critical Philosophy","author":"Nelson L.","year":"1949"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/20004508.2019.1627844"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_38_1","unstructured":"OpenAI.2024.\u201cGPT\u20104.\u201dAssecced January 10 2024.https:\/\/openai.com\/index\/gpt\u20104\u2010research\/?ref=kailua\u2010labs."},{"key":"e_1_2_13_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3587102.3588794"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_40_1","first-page":"31","volume-title":"The Thinker's Guide to Socratic Questioning","author":"Paul R.","year":"2016"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Phung T. V.P\u0103durean J.Cambronero et\u00a0al.2023.\u201cGenerative AI for Programming Education: Benchmarking ChatGPT GPT\u20104 and Human Tutors.\u201dCornell University Library. arXiv.org.","DOI":"10.1145\/3568812.3603476"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_42_1","volume-title":"[Workshop presentation] The 28th Global Chinese Conference on Computers in Education","author":"Qi C.","year":"2024"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-023-12114-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18608\/jla.2016.33.3"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1057\/s41599\u2010024\u201003991\u20106"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s41239\u2010024\u201000446\u20105"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-022-10891-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.55529\/ijitc.31.17.22"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0959-4752(94)90003-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_50_1","unstructured":"Tian H. W.Lu T. O.Li et\u00a0al.2023.\u201cIs ChatGPT the Ultimate Programming Assistant\u2014How Far Is It?\u201dCornell University Library. arXiv.org."},{"key":"e_1_2_13_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2023.2286370"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.26803\/ijlter.22.7.7"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_53_1","first-page":"7","article-title":"ChatGPT in Programming Education: ChatGPT as a Programming Assistant","volume":"1","author":"Vukoji\u010di\u0107 M.","year":"2023","journal-title":"InspirED Teachers' Voice"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_54_1","volume-title":"Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes","author":"Vygotsky L. S.","year":"1978"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.12758"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chbah.2023.100005"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeai.2023.100147"},{"issue":"6","key":"e_1_2_13_58_1","first-page":"256","article-title":"The Use of Socratic Method as a Teaching\/Learning Tool to Develop Students' Critical Thinking: A Review of Literature","volume":"15","author":"Zare P.","year":"2015","journal-title":"Language in India"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3728894"}],"container-title":["Journal of Computer Assisted Learning"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/jcal.70210","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1002\/jcal.70210","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/jcal.70210","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T01:35:38Z","timestamp":1776389738000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/jcal.70210"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,17]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1002\/jcal.70210"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/jcal.70210","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["0266-4909","1365-2729"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0266-4909","type":"print"},{"value":"1365-2729","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,17]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2025-05-06","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-02-06","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-02-17","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}],"article-number":"e70210"}}