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Therefore, there is very little experimental research on how to use an AI chatbot based on a pedagogical approach.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study proposed a conceptual framework grounded in a hybrid intelligence feedback model for the use of AI chatbots as pedagogical feedback tools and aimed to examine its applicability and effectiveness within a higher education programming course.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Method<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>An experimental pre\u2010test\/post\u2010test study involving 36 undergraduate students was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed model and its underlying design principles for integrating AI chatbots as pedagogically grounded feedback tools in educational settings.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results and Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Theory\u2010grounded AI chatbots based on the proposed hybrid intelligence feedback model and its design principles significantly improved learning more than the general\u2010purpose AI chatbot in programming class. Theory\u2010grounded AI chatbots can be an effective feedback tool in improving students' skills in self\u2010evaluation, critical thinking, and regulating learning strategies. General\u2010purpose AI chatbot feedback may cause \u201cmetacognitive laziness,\u201d harming learning performance.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Implications<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The article indicates the need for further research and validation to ensure effective implementation and address challenges associated with AI's potential inaccuracies.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/jcal.70212","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T03:44:47Z","timestamp":1773027887000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Hybrid Intelligence Feedback: A Model Proposal and Preliminary Study"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"42","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0459-9677","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Atakan","family":"Coskun","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Instructional Technology Department of Middle East Technical University &amp; Turkish Aerospace  Ankara Turkey"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9624-4055","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erkan","family":"Er","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instructional Technology Department of Middle East Technical University  Ankara Turkey"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_14_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10758-023-09650-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02602938.2018.1434128"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MC.2020.2996587"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/computers14050158"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/computers14050185"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15391523.2023.2255698"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sapharm.2023.05.016"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_9_1","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Feedback for Learning","author":"Askew S.","year":"2000"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2024.2420184"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-016-0105-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/00346543061002213"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s41239-025-00548-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/1703297.2025.2499174"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.13336"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02602938.2012.691462"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/00346543065003245"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-287-532-7_389-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_19_1","volume-title":"Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences","author":"Cohen J.","year":"1988"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2023.104967"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105323"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12599-019-00595-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/INDIN51400.2023.10218157"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02602938.2020.1786497"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s41239-022-00362-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/0034654312474350"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.13544"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_28_1","volume-title":"Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS Statistics","author":"Field A.","year":"2013"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeai.2024.100290"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/0013189X12463051"},{"issue":"6","key":"e_1_2_14_31_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Mobile\u2010Based Artificial Intelligence Chatbot for Self\u2010Regulated Learning in a Hybrid Flipped Classroom","volume":"41","author":"Han I.","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Computing in Higher Education"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/003465430298487"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/07294360.2019.1657807"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10676-024-09775-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_35_1","unstructured":"Holmes W. 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