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The objective difficulty was measured by the precision level of search topics (as queries) in the search system, and searchers' domain knowledge was assessed by a self\u2010reported rating on the familiarity with MeSH terms that were related to the search topics in the study. We compared expert searchers' and novice searchers' query similarity and query features between easy and difficult tasks. The results showed that there was no significant difference between domain experts and novices in query similarity, but there existed an opposite pattern of task difficulty effects on query similarity for searchers with different domain knowledge levels. Domain expert searchers had more diverse vocabulary in difficult tasks than in easy tasks, whereas novice searchers had to rely heavily on task descriptions to formulate their queries. Task difficulty had also influenced searchers' performance, especially the precision measure. Novice searchers' recall was relatively low in both easy and difficult tasks. The findings in this study help us further understand users' query formulation process, and have implication for the design of query suggestion functions in search systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/pra2.2016.14505301063","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,27]],"date-time":"2016-12-27T06:08:13Z","timestamp":1482818893000},"page":"1-9","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["The exploration of objective task difficulty and domain knowledge effects on users' query formulation"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"53","author":[{"given":"Chang","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Peking University Beijing  China 100871"}]},{"given":"Xiangmin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wayne State University Detroit MI 48202"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Peking University Beijing China 100871"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_8_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/602333"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aula A. Khan R.&Guan Z.(2010).How does search behavior change as search becomes more difficult?Proceedings of CHI'10 35\u201344.","DOI":"10.1145\/1753326.1753333"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/016555159001600104"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/345124.345143"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15516709cog0502_2"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-4571(1999)50:6<544::AID-ASI10>3.0.CO;2-M"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duggan G. B. &Payne S. J.(2008).Knowledge in the head and on the web: using topic expertise to aid search. InProceeding of the twenty\u2010sixth annual SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems. (pp.39\u201348). 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