{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,18]],"date-time":"2025-12-18T09:16:45Z","timestamp":1766049405342,"version":"3.48.0"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,25]],"date-time":"2025-08-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756080000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Journal of Field Robotics"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>This paper proposes a monocular visual\u2010based navigation state estimator designed to operate onboard cost\u2010effective Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) in monitoring and inspection applications. The estimator exploits a monocular visual odometry solution, named Mono UVO (Monocular Underwater Visual Odometry), integrating acoustic range information to make the scale observable and provide an estimate of the robot linear velocity in complex and unstructured underwater scenarios. By utilizing an Extended Kalman Filter, the visual\u2010based linear velocity is fused with robot attitude and depth measurements to retrieve the AUV navigation state. The proposed navigation framework was extensively tested offline using heterogeneous data sets of real underwater images collected during several experimental campaigns. Moreover, online validation of the navigation state estimator was performed onboard an AUV to accomplish a closed\u2010loop autonomous survey at sea. The performance of the state estimator is evaluated by comparing the estimation output with reference signals obtained from Doppler Velocity Log measurements and GPS when available. The results demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed visual\u2010based state estimator in providing reliable AUV navigation state in very different and challenging underwater environments. Among the contributions, the source code of the Mono UVO algorithm is made available online, together with the release of an underwater data set.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.70032","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,25]],"date-time":"2025-08-25T10:41:15Z","timestamp":1756118475000},"page":"353-375","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Monocular Visual\u2010Based State Estimator for Online Navigation in Complex and Unstructured Underwater Environments"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"43","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3500-7133","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Ruscio","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering University of Pisa Pisa Italy"}]},{"given":"Simone","family":"Tani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering University of Pisa Pisa Italy"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Caiti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering University of Pisa Pisa Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8600-1976","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Riccardo","family":"Costanzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering University of Pisa Pisa Italy"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_12_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0262-8856(02)00154-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aulinas J. M.Carreras X.Llado et al.2011. \u201cFeature Extraction for Underwater Visual Slam.\u201d InOCEANS 2011 IEEE\u2010Spain 1\u20137. IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/Oceans-Spain.2011.6003474"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cviu.2007.09.014"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364917728574"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bresciani M. G.Peralta F.Ruscio L.Bazzarello A.Caiti andR.Costanzi.2021. \u201cCooperative asv\/auv System Exploiting Active Acoustic Localization.\u201d In2021 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) 4337\u20134342. IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS51168.2021.9636326"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apor.2021.102961"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2016.2624754"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng Y. M.Maimone andL.Matthies.2005. \u201cVisual Odometry on the Mars Exploration Rovers.\u201d In2005 IEEE International Conference on Systems Man and Cybernetics (Vol. 1) 903\u2013910.IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSMC.2005.1571261"},{"volume-title":"Monocular Odometry for Underwater Vehicles With Online Estimation of the Scale Factor","year":"2017","author":"Creuze V.","key":"e_1_2_12_10_1"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_11_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"The Harris Corner Detector","volume":"2","author":"Derpanis K. G.","year":"2004","journal-title":"York University"},{"issue":"8","key":"e_1_2_12_12_1","first-page":"855","article-title":"Close\u2010Range Camera Calibration","volume":"37","author":"Duane C. B.","year":"1971","journal-title":"Photogrammetric Engineering"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2017.2658577"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Engel J. T.Sch\u00f6ps andD.Cremers.2014. \u201cLsd\u2010Slam: Large\u2010Scale Direct Monocular Slam.\u201d InEuropean Conference on Computer Vision 834\u2013849.Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-10605-2_54"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s19030687"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifacol.2017.08.754"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2016.2623335"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_18_1","unstructured":"Fossen T. I.2002. \u201cMarine Control Systems\u2010Guidance. Navigation and Control of Ships Rigs and Underwater Vehicles.\u201dMarine Cybernetics Trondheim Norway Org. Number NO 985 195 005 MVA ISBN: 82 92356 00 2.https:\/\/www.marinecybernetics.com."},{"key":"e_1_2_12_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2012.2182810"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galceran E. andM.Carreras.2012. \u201cEfficient Seabed Coverage Path Planning for ASVs and AUVs.\u201d In2012 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems 88\u201393.IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2012.6385553"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geiger A. P.Lenz andR.Urtasun.2012. \u201cAre We Ready for Autonomous Driving? The Kitti Vision Benchmark Suite.\u201d In2012 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition 3354\u20133361.IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2012.6248074"},{"volume-title":"Multiple View Geometry in Computer Vision","year":"2003","author":"Hartley R.","key":"e_1_2_12_22_1"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3182\/20070919-3-HR-3904.00065"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang G.2019. \u201cVisual\u2010Inertial Navigation: A Concise Review.\u201d In2019 International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA) 9572\u20139582.IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2019.8793604"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/5.265351"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2019.10.007"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joshi B. S.Rahman M.Kalaitzakis et al.2019. \u201cExperimental Comparison of Open Source Visual\u2010Inertial\u2010Based State Estimation Algorithms in the Underwater Domain.\u201d In2019 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) 7227\u20137233.IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS40897.2019.8968049"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kelly J. S.Saripalli andG. S.Sukhatme.2008. \u201cCombined Visual and Inertial Navigation for an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle.\u201d InField and Service Robotics: Results of the 6th International Conference 255\u2013264.Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-75404-6_24"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim A. andR.Eustice.2009. \u201cPose\u2010Graph Visual Slam With Geometric Model Selection for Autonomous Underwater Ship Hull Inspection.\u201d In2009 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems 1559\u20131565.IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2009.5354132"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2012.2235699"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10514-023-10138-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11263-008-0152-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leutenegger S. M.Chli andR. Y.Siegwart.2011. \u201cBrisk: Binary Robust Invariant Scalable Keypoints.\u201d In2011 International conference on computer vision 2548\u20132555.IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2011.6126542"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364914554813"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s21072468"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/293133a0"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/B:VISI.0000029664.99615.94"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_38_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Computer Vision for Ocean Observing","author":"Lu H.","year":"2017","journal-title":"Artificial Intelligence and Computer Vision"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McLeod D. andJ.Jacobson.2011. \u201cAutonomous UUV Inspection\u2014Revolutionizing Undersea Inspection.\u201d InOCEANS'11 MTS\/IEEE KONA 1\u20134.IEEE.","DOI":"10.23919\/OCEANS.2011.6106972"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mourikis A. I. andS. I.Roumeliotis.2007. \u201cA Multi\u2010State Constraint Kalman Filter for Vision\u2010Aided Inertial Navigation.\u201d InProceedings 2007 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation 3565\u20133572.IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.2007.364024"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2015.2463671"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Newcombe R. A. S. J.Lovegrove andA. J.Davison.2011. \u201cDtam: Dense Tracking and Mapping in Real\u2010Time.\u201d In2011 International Conference on Computer Vision 2320\u20132327.IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2011.6126513"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_43_1","unstructured":"OpenCV.2015. \u201cOpen Source Computer Vision Library.\u201d"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2013.2278891"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2018.2853729"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/02783649221110259"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/B:VLSI.0000028532.53893.82"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rublee E. V.Rabaud K.Konolige andG.Bradski.2011. \u201cOrb: An Efficient Alternative to Sift or Surf.\u201d In2011 International conference on computer vision 2564\u20132571.Ieee.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2011.6126544"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifacol.2022.10.456"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruscio F. S.Tani M.Bresciani andR.Costanzi.2023. \u201cDealing With Feature Correspondence in Visual Odometry for Underwater Applications.\u201d InOCEANS 2023\u2010Limerick 1\u20138.IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANSLimerick52467.2023.10244520"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2019.04.011"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2011.943233"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi J..1994. \u201cGood Features to Track.\u201d In1994 Proceedings of IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition 593\u2013600.IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.1994.323794"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shkurti F. I.Rekleitis andG.Dudek.2011. \u201cFeature Tracking Evaluation for Pose Estimation in Underwater Environments.\u201d In2011 Canadian Conference on Computer and Robot Vision 160\u2013167.IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/CRV.2011.28"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shkurti F. I.Rekleitis M.Scaccia andG.Dudek.2011. \u201cState Estimation of an Underwater Robot Using Visual and Inertial Information.\u201d In2011 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems 5054\u20135060.IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2011.6094680"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s151229831"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2023.3334979"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tarrio J. J. andS.Pedre.2015. \u201cRealtime Edge\u2010Based Visual Odometry for a Monocular Camera.\u201d InProceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision 702\u2013710.Springer.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2015.87"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10846-017-0670-y"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0262-8856(97)00056-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Williams S. andI.Mahon.2004. \u201cSimultaneous Localisation and Mapping on the Great Barrier Reef.\u201d InIEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation 2004. Proceedings. ICRA'04. 2004 (Vol. 2) 1771\u20131776.IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.2004.1308080"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.margeo.2014.03.012"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2024.117139"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/34.888718"}],"container-title":["Journal of Field Robotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/rob.70032","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,18]],"date-time":"2025-12-18T09:13:31Z","timestamp":1766049211000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/rob.70032"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,25]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1002\/rob.70032"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/rob.70032","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["1556-4959","1556-4967"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"1556-4959"},{"type":"electronic","value":"1556-4967"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,25]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2024-01-26","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-07-15","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-08-25","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}