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Light, ultrasound, and magnetic fields provide complementary advantages in controllability, tissue accessibility, and biological compatibility, but their performance depends on both physical\u2010field propagation and efficient conversion of external energy into intracellular signals and predictable gene\u2010regulatory outputs. This review presents a unified framework of physical transduction, biological sensors, signal processors, and genetic effectors for comparing prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems. Core genetic circuits are distinguished from delivery and auxiliary platforms that support cargo release, cellular uptake, or energy conversion without directly regulating genes. Representative systems are compared by circuit architecture, transduction mechanism, stimulus parameters, dynamic range, basal leakage, response kinetics, reversibility, in vivo actuation, delivery requirements, and safety. 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