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However, the clinical efficacy of autophagy inhibitors has been inconsistent. To delineate clinical and epidemiological features associated with autophagy inhibition and a positive oncological clinical response, a retrospective analysis of patients is conducted treated with hydroxychloroquine, a known autophagy inhibitor. A direct correlation between smoking status and inhibition of autophagy with hydroxychloroquine is identified. Recognizing that smoking is associated with elevated circulating levels of carbon monoxide (CO), it is hypothesized that supplemental CO can amplify autophagy inhibition. A novel, gas\u2010entrapping material containing CO in a pre\u2010clinical model is applied and demonstrated that CO can dramatically increase the cytotoxicity of autophagy inhibitors and significantly inhibit the growth of tumors when used in combination. 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