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However, the mechanisms by which hunger influences olfactory learning remain unclear. In this study, it is shown that aversive or appetitive memory is formed faster in hungry\n                    <jats:italic>C. elegans<\/jats:italic>\n                    . These findings reveal that hunger\u2010induced octopamine release from the interneuron RIC enhances both aversive and appetitive olfactory learning. By analyzing neural circuits downstream of RIC, two distinct pathways involved in memory formation are identified. For aversive learning, the sensory neuron ASH is activated via the\n                    <jats:italic>SER\u20103<\/jats:italic>\n                    receptor, leading to glutamate release, which acts on the\n                    <jats:italic>GLR\u20102<\/jats:italic>\n                    receptor in AIA interneuron during the starvation phase. During the training section, AIA is subsequently inhibited via the glutamate\u2010gated chloride channel\n                    <jats:italic>GLC\u20103<\/jats:italic>\n                    . In contrast, octopamine targets AIY interneurons through the\n                    <jats:italic>SER\u20106<\/jats:italic>\n                    receptor, promoting appetitive learning. Furthermore, it is indicated that norepinephrine, the mammalian homolog of octopamine, and alpha1\u2010adrenergic receptors may be involved in hunger\u2010enhanced olfactory learning in mice. These findings may offer insights into the neural mechanisms that underlie cognitive flexibility in response to physiological states.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202513842","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,15]],"date-time":"2025-12-15T10:26:08Z","timestamp":1765794368000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Hungry for Knowledge: Octopamine Signaling Regulates Hunger\u2010Enhanced Olfactory Learning"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Huijuan","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Systems Science Faculty of Arts and Sciences Beijing Normal University Zhuhai Guangdong 519000 China"},{"name":"International Academic Center of Complex Systems Beijing Normal University Zhuhai Guangdong 519000 China"},{"name":"School of Systems Science Beijing Normal University Beijing 100062 China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guiyuan","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Systems Science Faculty of Arts and Sciences Beijing Normal University Zhuhai Guangdong 519000 China"},{"name":"International Academic Center of Complex Systems Beijing Normal University Zhuhai Guangdong 519000 China"},{"name":"School of Systems Science Beijing Normal University Beijing 100062 China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ruixue","family":"Qin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Systems Science Faculty of Arts and Sciences Beijing Normal University Zhuhai Guangdong 519000 China"},{"name":"International Academic Center of Complex Systems Beijing Normal University Zhuhai Guangdong 519000 China"},{"name":"School of Systems Science Beijing Normal University Beijing 100062 China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yinghao","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Systems Science Faculty of Arts and Sciences Beijing Normal University Zhuhai Guangdong 519000 China"},{"name":"International Academic Center of Complex Systems Beijing Normal University Zhuhai Guangdong 519000 China"},{"name":"School of Systems Science Beijing Normal University Beijing 100062 China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wenbo","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MOE Key Lab of Bioinformatics BNRIST Bioinformatics Division Department of Automation Tsinghua University Beijing 100084 China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ruixia","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Systems Science Faculty of Arts and Sciences Beijing Normal University Zhuhai Guangdong 519000 China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Minxian","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroscience City University of Hong Kong Tat Chee Avenue Kowloon Tong Hong Kong 610200 China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jingxuan","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology West China School of Basic Medical Sciences &amp; 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