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However, most studies have examined these systems among populations in high\u2010income settings, which differ from the high pathogen and limited resource contexts in which the HPA axis functioned for most of human evolution.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>We investigated variability in diurnal salivary cortisol patterns among 298 Indigenous Shuar from Amazonian Ecuador (147 males, 151 females; age 2\u201386\u2009years), focusing on the effects of age, biological sex, and body mass index (BMI) in shaping differences in diurnal cortisol production. Saliva samples were collected three times daily (waking, 30\u2009minutes post\u2010waking, evening) for three consecutive days to measure key cortisol parameters: levels at waking, the cortisol awakening response, the diurnal slope, and total daily output.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Age was positively associated with waking levels and total daily output, with Shuar juveniles and adolescents displaying significantly lower levels than adults (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009&lt;\u2009.05). Sex was not a significant predictor of cortisol levels (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009&gt;\u2009.05), as Shuar males and females displayed similar patterns of diurnal cortisol production across the life course. Moreover, age, sex, and BMI significantly interacted to moderate the rate of diurnal cortisol decline (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u2009.027). Overall, Shuar demonstrated relatively lower cortisol concentrations than high\u2010income populations.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>This study expands the documented range of global variation in HPA axis activity and diurnal cortisol production and provides important insights into the plasticity of human stress physiology across diverse developmental and socioecological settings.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/ajhb.24056","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,22]],"date-time":"2024-03-22T08:14:00Z","timestamp":1711095240000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Variation in diurnal cortisol patterns among the Indigenous Shuar of Amazonian Ecuador"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"37","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8013-6773","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Melissa A.","family":"Liebert","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology Northern Arizona University  Flagstaff Arizona USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6489-4117","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samuel S.","family":"Urlacher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology Baylor University  Waco Texas USA"},{"name":"Child and Brain Development Program CIFAR  Toronto Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Felicia C.","family":"Madimenos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology Queens College (CUNY)  Flushing New York USA"},{"name":"New York Consortium of Evolutionary Primatology (NYCEP) CUNY Graduate Center  New York New York USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7486-5208","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Theresa E.","family":"Gildner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology Washington University in St. Louis  St. Louis Missouri USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4508-8507","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tara J.","family":"Cepon\u2010Robins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology University of Colorado, Colorado Springs  Colorado, Springs Colorado USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christopher J.","family":"Harrington","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology University of Oregon  Eugene Oregon USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Richard G.","family":"Bribiescas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology Yale University  New Haven Connecticut USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lawrence S.","family":"Sugiyama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology University of Oregon  Eugene Oregon USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7021-777X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J. 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