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We therefore examine associations among testosterone diurnal variation, age, and adiposity among Indigenous Shuar males of Amazonian Ecuador.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Morning and evening saliva was sampled over three consecutive days to capture diurnal testosterone variation (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u2009104, ages 12\u201367), with one\u2010time measures of adiposity (body fat, BMI). Multilevel models tested predicted associations. Average morning and evening testosterone ratio was calculated to assess diurnal variation, and regression analyses tested the association between this ratio and age.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Variation in testosterone concentrations at waking was apparent by age, with young males exhibiting the highest concentrations. Diurnal testosterone variation decreased with age (\n                      <jats:italic>\u03b2<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u2009\u22120.006,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20090.001). Significant age\u2010by\u2010BMI or percent body fat interactions were documented (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&lt;\u20090.05). At lower adiposity levels, mean testosterone concentrations across the day were lowest at younger ages, highest in middle\u2010aged participants, and slightly lower at older ages. At higher adiposity levels this pattern was reversed (for BMI) or attenuated (for percent body fat).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\u201cNormal\u201d testosterone levels are largely based on studies from high\u2010income populations that do not account for diverse ecological conditions known to influence human physiology. This study complements others highlighting the complex relationships that exist among age, adiposity, and diurnal testosterone patterns in subsistence populations, suggesting socio\u2010ecological regulation of testosterone.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/ajhb.70166","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]],"date-time":"2025-11-01T11:38:36Z","timestamp":1761997116000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Salivary Testosterone, Age, and Adiposity Associations Among Shuar Males in Amazonian Ecuador Challenge Assumptions of \u201cNormal\u201d Testosterone Patterns"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"37","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7486-5208","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Theresa E.","family":"Gildner","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology Washington University in St. Louis  St. Louis Missouri USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8013-6773","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Melissa A.","family":"Liebert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology Northern Arizona University  Flagstaff Arizona USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Joshua M.","family":"Schrock","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Sexual and Gender Minority Health and Wellbeing Northwestern University  Evanston Illinois USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6489-4117","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samuel S.","family":"Urlacher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology Baylor University  Waco Texas USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dorsa","family":"Amir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology &amp; Neuroscience Duke University  Durham North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christopher J.","family":"Harrington","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology University of Oregon  Eugene Oregon USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Felicia C.","family":"Madimenos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology Queens College (CUNY)  Flushing New York USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4508-8507","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tara J.","family":"Cepon\u2010Robins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology University of Colorado  Colorado Springs Colorado USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8228-307X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Richard G.","family":"Bribiescas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology Yale University  New Haven Connecticut USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lawrence S.","family":"Sugiyama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology University of Oregon  Eugene Oregon USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7021-777X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J. 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