{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T08:28:49Z","timestamp":1782980929580,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":86,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,10]],"date-time":"2026-01-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768003200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":9,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]],"date-time":"2026-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767225600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000155","name":"Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["752\u20102024\u20102545"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["752\u20102024\u20102545"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000155","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["American J Hum Biol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study examines how settler\u2010driven environmental change shaped malaria transmission and mortality in 19th\u2010century southern Ontario. It aimed to understand the biosocial and ecological conditions that sustained endemic malaria in a temperate, colonial context.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Materials and Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We analyzed 2702 deaths attributed to probable malaria from 1831 to 1900 using civil, cemetery, parish, and municipal records. Each record was coded for age, sex, occupation, region, and season of death. To assess environmental influences, we incorporated monthly temperature and rainfall data from Toronto as a regional climate proxy. We examined demographic and spatial patterns at multiple scales, including towns, settlement type (urban\/rural), and regional groupings, alongside temporal and seasonal variation. Statistical comparisons were used to explore associations, including nonlinear modeling of rainfall and malaria mortality.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Probable malaria mortality declined over time but persisted throughout the century. Children under 5 accounted for over half of recorded deaths, while adults in agricultural occupations were also disproportionately affected. Rural areas, particularly in western Ontario, experienced the highest mortality. Generalized additive model (GAM) results indicated a strong nonlinear association between rainfall and malaria deaths (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&lt;\u20090.001), while temperature was not a significant predictor.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Malaria's persistence in 19th\u2010century Ontario reflected a structural embedding of disease risk within settler\u2010transformed landscapes. Deforestation, altered hydrology, and agricultural intensification created ecologies conducive to mosquito breeding. Vulnerability was not evenly distributed but shaped by age, labor, and proximity to altered environments. These findings underscore the importance of integrating environmental and historical data to reconstruct past disease ecologies and illustrate how evolutionary mismatch can drive vulnerability even in short\u2010lived endemic contexts.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/ajhb.70181","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,10]],"date-time":"2026-01-10T11:23:36Z","timestamp":1768044216000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Ecologies of Risk: Malaria and Settler Landscape Transformation in 19th\u2010Century Ontario"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"38","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-2793-6488","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amanda","family":"Cooke","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology McMaster University  Hamilton Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Megan B.","family":"Brickley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology McMaster University  Hamilton Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_11_2_1","unstructured":"Archives of Ontario. n.d. \u201cThe Archives of Ontario Celebrates our Agricultural Past: Settling the Land. Government of Ontario.\u201d Retrieved August 28 2025.https:\/\/www.archives.gov.on.ca\/en\/explore\/online\/agriculture\/settling.aspx."},{"key":"e_1_2_11_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2004.08.066"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_4_1","volume-title":"Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance","author":"Arrow K. 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