{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,6]],"date-time":"2026-06-06T08:00:57Z","timestamp":1780732857460,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,10]],"date-time":"2026-05-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778371200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,10]],"date-time":"2026-05-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778371200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["American J Industrial Med"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We used national\u2010level data to compare worker demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, work arrangements, psychosocial working conditions, safety and health, job security, wages and benefits, and worker health and well\u2010being before the COVID\u201019 pandemic, in 2018, and in the late stage of the pandemic, in 2022. Understanding these changes helps inform some of the potential ways these factors may shape the future of work.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      We analyzed self\u2010reported and publicly available data from the 2018 and 2022 waves of the General Social Survey (GSS)\u2014Quality of Worklife (QWL) module, focusing on adults working part\u2010time or full\u2010time. We describe differences in the broad categories of interest mentioned above, as well as subcategories within each. For example, we assessed changes in psychosocial working conditions by focusing on subcategories that included job demands, job control, role conflict, resource adequacy, job support, work flexibility, and work and family interface, that is, the boundaries between work and family life. We used Mann\u2013Whitney tests to assess statistically significant changes, using weighted, nationally representative worker samples (\n                      <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20091473 in 2018;\n                      <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20092112 in 2022).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Between 2018 and 2022, we observed two changes in work arrangements; the share of independent contractors increased (from 12.4% to 14.4%) while the share of those working full\u2010time decreased (from 81.3% to 78.5%). Psychosocial conditions exhibited mixed trends; job demands and control showed marginal improvement, while role conflict, resource adequacy, and job support worsened. The share of workers who mainly worked at home increased (6.6%\u201317.2%), alongside those experiencing family\u2010work conflict (from 26% to 32%). Health and well\u2010being also worsened, with more workers reporting lower job satisfaction and very often feeling used up (from 13.1% to 16.0%). In addition, workers reported more days in poor mental health (from 3.6 to 4.4 days) and days with activity limitations (from 1.6 to 2.2) in the past 30 days.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The quality of worklife in 2022 differed meaningfully from 2018, though not uniformly for better or worse. For example, increases in working at home and the share of independent contractor arrangements suggest different potential long\u2010term consequences for worker well\u2010being. Continued monitoring and more nuanced analyses are essential to understanding the evolving future of work.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.70088","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,10]],"date-time":"2026-05-10T10:29:43Z","timestamp":1778408983000},"page":"560-574","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Changes in Work Arrangements, Psychosocial Working Conditions, and Worker Well\u2010Being Between 2018 and 2022: Evidence From the General Social Survey"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"69","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4205-1119","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tapas K.","family":"Ray","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Washington DC USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3129-908X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Regina","family":"Pana\u2010Cryan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Washington DC USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anasua","family":"Bhattacharya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Washington DC USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_12_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.23183"},{"issue":"11","key":"e_1_2_12_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.23037","article-title":"Artificial Intelligence: Implications for the Future of Work","volume":"62","author":"Howard J.","year":"2019","journal-title":"American Journal of Industrial Medicine"},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_2_12_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1093\/qje\/qjaa004","article-title":"The Fall of the Labor Share and the Rise of Superstar Firms","volume":"135","author":"Autor D.","year":"2020","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Economics"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/705716"},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_2_12_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.23223","article-title":"Precarious Work, Job Stress, and Health\u2010Related Quality of Life","volume":"64","author":"Bhattacharya A.","year":"2021","journal-title":"American Journal of Industrial Medicine"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L. F.KatzandA. B.Krueger Understanding trends in alternative work arrangements in the United States 2019 NBER Working Paper Series 2425.https:\/\/www.nber.org\/papers\/w25425.pdf.","DOI":"10.3386\/w25425"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.19759"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_9_1","unstructured":"J.Nigam J.Streit T.Ray andN.Swanson \u201cCOVID\u201019 Stress Among Your Workers? Healthy Work Design and Well\u2010Being Solutions Are Critical.\u201d CDC NIOSH Science Blog.2020June 12 https:\/\/blogs.cdc.gov\/niosh-science-blog\/2020\/06\/12\/covid-19-stress\/."},{"key":"e_1_2_12_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-021-11111-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph182010967"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S. M.Smith R.Edwards andH.Duong \u201cUnemployment Rises in 2020 as the Country Battles the COVID\u201019 Pandemic \u201d Monthly Labor Review U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics June 2021 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21916\/mlr.2021.12.","DOI":"10.21916\/mlr.2021.12"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_13_1","unstructured":"Congressional Research Service. \u201cTreasury and Federal Reserve Financial Assistance in Title IV of the CARES Act (P.L. 116\u2010136) \u201d 2021 (2025 July 15).https:\/\/www.congress.gov\/crs-product\/R46329."},{"key":"e_1_2_12_14_1","unstructured":"R.Pana\u2010Cryan T.Ray T.Bushnell andB.Quay \u201cEconomic Security During the COVID\u201019 Pandemic: A Healthy Work Design and Well\u2010Being Perspective \u201d CDC NIOSH Science Blog.2020June 22 https:\/\/blogs.cdc.gov\/niosh-science-blog\/2020\/06\/22\/economic-security-covid-19\/."},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_2_12_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1257\/jep.36.2.55","article-title":"The $800 Billion Paycheck Protection Program: Where Did the Money Go and Why Did It Go There?","volume":"36","author":"Autor D.","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Perspectives"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_16_1","volume-title":"The Postpandemic Economy","author":"Lund S.","year":"2021"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbusres.2020.05.037","article-title":"Employee Adjustment and Well\u2010Being in the Era of COVID\u201019: Implications for Human Resource Management","volume":"116","author":"Carnevale J. B.","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Business Research"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intman.2021.100826"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_2_12_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1038\/scientificamerican0322-64","article-title":"Work Changed Forever","volume":"326","author":"Leiter M. P.","year":"2022","journal-title":"Scientific American"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_20_1","volume-title":"Beyond the Numbers: Productivity","author":"Pabilonia S. W.","year":"2024"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.20388"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.22971","article-title":"Changes in Work Characteristics Over 12 Years: Findings From the 2002\u20132014 US National NIOSH Quality of Work Life Surveys","volume":"62","author":"Myers S.","year":"2019","journal-title":"American Journal of Industrial Medicine"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/JOM.0000000000002820"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_24_1","unstructured":"CDC. National Occupational Research Agenda (NORA). 3 May2023. Available online accessed February 27 2025 https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nora\/about."},{"key":"e_1_2_12_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.22669"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_26_1","volume-title":"\u201cNonstandard Work Arrangements,\u201d in The Handbook of Occupational Health Psychology","author":"Pana\u2010Cryan R.","year":"2023"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.2307\/2392498","article-title":"Job Demands, Job Decision Latitude and Mental Strain: Implications for Job Redesign","volume":"24","author":"Karasek R. A.","year":"1979","journal-title":"Administrative Science Quarterly"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_28_1","volume-title":"Job Control and Worker Health","author":"Sauter S. L.","year":"1989"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_29_1","volume-title":"Cooperation and Competition: Theory and Research","author":"Johnson D. W.","year":"1989"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_30_1","volume-title":"Healthy Work: Stress, Productivity, and the Reconstruction of Working Life","author":"Karasek R.","year":"1990"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1037\/10173-008","volume-title":"Organizational Risk Factors for Job Stress","author":"Radmacher S. A.","year":"1995"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1037\/10173-000","volume-title":"Organizational Risk Factors for Job Stress","author":"Sauter S. L.","year":"1995"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/026783799296084"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18063254"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/job.101"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_36_1","unstructured":"CDC. Health\u2010Related Quality of Life (HRQOL); Methods and Measures. 31 October2018. Available online:https:\/\/archive.cdc.gov\/www_cdc_gov\/hrqol\/methods.htm(archived on 26 September 2023 accessed 19 September 19 2025)."},{"key":"e_1_2_12_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1214\/aoms\/1177730491"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7244e1"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1475-5890.12233"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2017.05.003","article-title":"Employment Arrangement, Job Stress, and Health\u2010Related Quality of Life","volume":"100","author":"Ray T. K.","year":"2017","journal-title":"Safety Science"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S. R.Buckman J. M.Barrero N.Bloom andS. J.Davis Measuring Work From Home. NBER Working Paper Series 2025 Working Paper 33508.https:\/\/www.nber.org\/papers\/w33508.","DOI":"10.3386\/w33508"}],"container-title":["American Journal of Industrial Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/ajim.70088","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1002\/ajim.70088","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/ajim.70088","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,6]],"date-time":"2026-06-06T07:37:19Z","timestamp":1780731439000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/ajim.70088"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,10]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1002\/ajim.70088"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ajim.70088","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["0271-3586","1097-0274"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0271-3586","type":"print"},{"value":"1097-0274","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,10]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2026-01-28","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-04-29","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-05-10","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}