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Genetic factors as well as environmental factors have been observed to influence risks for spina bifida. Few studies have investigated possible gene\u2010environment interactions that could contribute to spina bifida risk. The aim of this study is to examine the interaction between gene variants in biotransformation enzyme pathways and ambient air pollution exposures and risk of spina bifida. We evaluated the role of air pollution exposure during pregnancy and gene variants of biotransformation enzymes from bloodspots and buccal cells in a California population\u2010based case\u2010control (86 cases of spina bifida and 208 non\u2010malformed controls) study. We considered race\/ethnicity and folic acid vitamin use as potential effect modifiers and adjusted for those factors and smoking. We observed gene\u2010environment interactions between each of the five pollutants and several gene variants: NO (<jats:italic>ABCC2<\/jats:italic>), NO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> (<jats:italic>ABCC2, SLC01B1<\/jats:italic>), PM<jats:sub>10<\/jats:sub> (<jats:italic>ABCC2, CYP1A1, CYP2B6, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, NAT2, SLC01B1, SLC01B3)<\/jats:italic>, PM<jats:sub>2.5<\/jats:sub> (<jats:italic>CYP1A1<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>CYP1A2<\/jats:italic>). These analyses show positive interactions between air pollution exposure during early pregnancy and gene variants associated with metabolizing enzymes. These exploratory results suggest that some individuals based on their genetic background may be more susceptible to the adverse effects of pollution.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/ajmg.a.38661","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,22]],"date-time":"2018-04-22T04:10:11Z","timestamp":1524370211000},"page":"1055-1090","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Genetic variation in biotransformation enzymes, air pollution exposures, and risk of spina bifida"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"176","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1435-4814","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amy M.","family":"Padula","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences University of California, San Francisco San Francisco California"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics Stanford University School of Medicine Stanford California"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kathleen","family":"Schultz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UCSF Benioff Children's Hospital Oakland Oakland California"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cecilia","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine Arizon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fred","family":"Lurmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sonoma Technology Inc Petaluma California"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"S. Katharine","family":"Hammond","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health Sciences University of California Berkeley, Berkeley California"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gary M.","family":"Shaw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics Stanford University School of Medicine Stanford California"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_9_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ddrr.93"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/bth457"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3016.1991.tb00728.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1741-7015-4-36"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2015.12.010"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.285.23.2981"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajmg.a.36478"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/bdra.20143"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.6065"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1002212"},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_2_9_12_1","first-page":"265","article-title":"Polymorphisms in drug\u2010metabolizing enzymes: What is their clinical relevance and why do they exist?","volume":"60","author":"Nebert D. 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