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Independent of overall body size, AGD shows a strong positive correlation with male fertility and in rodents, AGD is a good indicator of male competitive ability and is associated with female choice. We hypothesized that AGD will also predict male competitive ability in non\u2010human primates. To test this, we measured AGD noninvasively with a parallel laser in a wild population of Angolan colobus monkeys (<jats:italic>Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii<\/jats:italic>) in Uganda and correlated to it to their social structure. <jats:italic>C. angolensis ruwenzorii<\/jats:italic> form a multilevel society with both one\u2010male\/multifemale units (OMUs) and multimale\/multifemale units (MMUs). We compared AGD in males from five OMUs and six MMUs and related it to their fecal androgen metabolite concentrations, dominance rank and body size, and to the number of females in their unit. Males in OMUs had greater access to females, so were predicted to have longer AGDs, but this was not found. AGD also did not correlate overall with mean fecal androgen metabolites in MMUs. However, AGD was correlated with dominance rank in MMUs, demonstrating that higher\u2010ranking males in these multimale units had longer AGDs. Body size did not show the same relationship with dominance rank, suggesting that male rank was not just a reflection of absolute male size. Our findings indicate that AGD predicts male competitive ability in this species and that it may be a useful correlate throughout the non\u2010human primates. These results also support the idea that prenatal androgen exposure increases the likelihood of the expression of behaviors that maintain high dominance rank.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/ajp.23111","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,21]],"date-time":"2020-02-21T11:26:32Z","timestamp":1582284392000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Anogenital distance as a measure of male competitive ability in Rwenzori Angolan colobus"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"82","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0908-156X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julie A.","family":"Teichroeb","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology University of Toronto Scarborough Toronto Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Samantha M.","family":"Stead","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology University of Toronto Scarborough Toronto Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Phoebe D.","family":"Edwards","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences University of Toronto Scarborough Toronto Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Florence","family":"Landry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology University of Toronto Scarborough Toronto Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rupert","family":"Palme","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical Sciences University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rudy","family":"Boonstra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences University of Toronto Scarborough Toronto Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_8_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0042372"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1214\/09-SS054"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10329-017-0643-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2004.05.001"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajp.22416"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2018.00213"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_9_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Sexual dimorphism in titi monkeys' digit (2D: 4D) ratio is associated with maternal urinary sex hormones during pregnancy","author":"Baxter A.","year":"2019","journal-title":"Developmental Psychobiology"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajp.20172"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2193\/2006-290"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajp.22103"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1812786116"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/bdrb.20050"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_15_1","first-page":"23","volume-title":"Advances in behavioral biology","author":"Clemens L. 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