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However, this may not always be the case as some behaviors can develop independently of any psychological distress, be triggered in environments known to promote welfare, and be part of an animal's coping mechanism. Furthermore, not all animals develop abnormal behavior, which has led researchers to assess risk factors that differentiate individuals in the display of these behaviors. Intrinsic risk factors that have been identified include the animal's species and genetics, age, sex, temperament, and clinical condition, while environmental risk factors include variables such as the animal's rearing, housing condition, husbandry procedures, and research experiences. To identify specific triggers and at\u2010risk animals, the expression of abnormal behavior in captive nonhuman primates should be routinely addressed in a consistent manner by appropriately trained staff. Which behaviors to assess, what assessment methods to use, which primates to monitor, and the aims of data collection should all be identified before proceeding to an intervention and\/or treatment. This article provides guidance for this process, by presenting an overview of known triggers and risk factors that should be considered, steps to design a comprehensive evaluation plan, and strategies that might be used for prevention or treatment. It also outlines the tools and processes for assessing and evaluating behavior in an appendix. This process will lead to a better understanding of abnormal behavior in captive primate colonies and ultimately to improved welfare.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/ajp.23380","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,5]],"date-time":"2022-04-05T17:12:28Z","timestamp":1649178748000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Nonhuman primate abnormal behavior: Etiology, assessment, and treatment"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"84","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1812-7731","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Corrine K.","family":"Lutz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Laboratory Animal Research, The National Academies of Sciences Engineering, and Medicine Washington District of Columbia USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2173-2991","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kristine","family":"Coleman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Comparative Medicine, Oregon National Primate Research Center Oregon Health and Science University Beaverton Oregon USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5953-3264","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lydia M.","family":"Hopper","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine Baltimore Maryland USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4224-2396","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Melinda A.","family":"Novak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences University of Massachusetts Amherst Massachusetts USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jaine E.","family":"Perlman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Animal Resources, Yerkes National Primate Research Center Emory University Atlanta Georgia USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6031-8251","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ori","family":"Pomerantz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Population and Behavioral Health Services, California National Primate Research Center University of California Davis California USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_15_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/zoo.1430040203"},{"key":"e_1_2_15_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1163\/156853974X00534"},{"key":"e_1_2_15_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10329-019-00723-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_15_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-843X.89.4.539"},{"key":"e_1_2_15_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0962728600001706"},{"key":"e_1_2_15_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0962728600026981"},{"key":"e_1_2_15_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajp.22543"},{"key":"e_1_2_15_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1201\/9781315120652-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_15_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applanim.2011.09.010"},{"key":"e_1_2_15_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajp.20347"},{"key":"e_1_2_15_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-18441-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_15_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2014.05.022"},{"key":"e_1_2_15_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327604JAWS0603_07"},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_2_15_15_1","first-page":"129","article-title":"Persistent effects of peer rearing on abnormal and species\u2010appropriate activities but not social behavior in group\u2010housed rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)","volume":"66","author":"Bauer S. 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