{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]],"date-time":"2026-07-20T22:38:57Z","timestamp":1784587137236,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":89,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,9]],"date-time":"2017-08-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1502236800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"funder":[{"name":"St Cross College Travel and Research Fund; School of Archaeology Meyerstein Fund"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["American J Phys Anthropol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec><jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title><jats:p>This study aims to identify the patterns and prevalence of violence\u2010related skull trauma (including the cranium and mandible) among a large sample of skeletons from medieval London (1050\u20131550\u00a0AD).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Materials and Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>In total, data from 399 skulls, representing six different sites from across medieval London, were analyzed for evidence of trauma and assessed for the likelihood that it was caused by violence. The sites include the three parish cemeteries of St Nicholas Shambles (GPO75), St Lawrence Jewry (GYE92), and St Benet Sherehog (ONE94); the two monastic houses of London Blackfriars (PIC87) and St Mary Graces (MIN86); and the early inmate cemetery from the medieval hospital of St Mary Spital (NRT85).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>The overall findings suggest that violence affected all aspects of medieval London society, but how that violence was characterized largely depended on sex and burial location. Specifically, males from the lay cemeteries appear to have been the demographic most affected by violence\u2010related skull injuries, particularly blunt force trauma to the cranial vault.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>Using both archaeological and historical evidence, the results suggest that violence in medieval London may have been more prevalent than in other parts of medieval England, particularly rural environments, but similar to other parts of medieval Europe. However, more studies focusing on medieval trauma, and violence specifically, need to be carried out to further strengthen these results. In particular, males from the lay cemeteries were disproportionately affected by violence\u2010related trauma, especially blunt force trauma. It perhaps indicates a means of informal conflict resolution as those of lower status did not always have the newly established medieval legal system available to them.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.23288","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,9]],"date-time":"2017-08-09T07:02:36Z","timestamp":1502262156000},"page":"488-504","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["Patterns and prevalence of violence\u2010related skull trauma in medieval London"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"164","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6097-1448","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kathryn","family":"Krakowka","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Archaeology University of Oxford Oxford OX1 3QY United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_9_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(14)60804-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpp.2014.07.003"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-1212(199601)6:1<2::AID-OA244>3.0.CO;2-R"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2095143"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_6_1","volume-title":"Raunds Furnells: the Anglo\u2010Saxon church and churchyard","author":"Boddington A.","year":"1996"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_7_1","volume-title":"The London Guildhall: An archaeological history of a neighbourhood from early medieval to modern times","author":"Bowsher D.","year":"2007"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_8_1","first-page":"357","volume-title":"Human osteology in archaeology and forensic science","author":"Boylston A.","year":"2000"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_9_1","volume-title":"Guidelines to the standards for recording human remains. Volume paper No. 7","author":"Brickley M.","year":"2004"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-1383(98)00176-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/oa.1198"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_12_1","first-page":"293","article-title":"Aetiology and incidence of facial fractures in adults","volume":"12","author":"Brook I. M.","year":"1983","journal-title":"International Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02437238"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_14_1","volume-title":"Digging up bones: The excavation, treatment and study of human skeletal remains","author":"Brothwell D. R.","year":"1981"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_15_1","volume-title":"Standards for data collection from human skeletal remains","author":"Buikstra J. E.","year":"1994"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0002-9432.71.3.298"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_17_1","volume-title":"The development of early medieval and later Poultry and Cheapside: Excavations at 1 Poultry and vicinity, City of London","author":"Burch M.","year":"2011"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_18_1","unstructured":"Cooper C.(2010).Forensisch\u2010anthropologische und traumatologische Untersuchungen an den menschlichen Skeletten aus der sp\u00e4tmittelalterlichen Schlacht von Dornach (1499 n. Chr.)(Unpublished doctoral thesis). Gutenberg University Germany."},{"key":"e_1_2_9_19_1","volume-title":"Mathematical methods of statistics","author":"Cram\u00e9r H.","year":"1946"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-1212(199711\/12)7:6<595::AID-OA339>3.0.CO;2-T"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_21_1","volume-title":"Death and burial in medieval England, 1066\u20131550","author":"Daniell C.","year":"1997"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_22_1","volume-title":"The cemetery of St Helen\u2010on\u2010the\u2010Walls, Aldwark","author":"Dawes J. D.","year":"1980"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_23_1","first-page":"294","volume-title":"A handbook for data analysis in the behavioral sciences","author":"Delucchi K. L.","year":"1993"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.22350"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_25_1","volume-title":"The civilising process","author":"Elias N."},{"key":"e_1_2_9_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1520\/JFS2002024"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0047-2484(80)90061-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_28_1","unstructured":"Fitzstephen W.(1772). (1190?).Fitz\u2010Stephen's description of the City of London newly translated from the Latin original; with a necessary commentary. A dissertation on the author \u2026is prefixed: and to the whole is subjoined a correct edition of the original with the various readings and some useful annotations. By an antiquary. London: printed for B. White."},{"key":"e_1_2_9_29_1","first-page":"35","volume-title":"Broken bones: Anthropological analysis of blunt force trauma","author":"Galloway A.","year":"1999"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/oa.2281"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_31_1","volume-title":"Requiem: The medieval monastic cemetery in Britain","author":"Gilchrist R.","year":"2005"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_32_1","volume-title":"Society and homicide in thirteenth\u2010century England","author":"Given J. B.","year":"1977"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_33_1","volume-title":"The Cistercian abbey of St Mary Graces, East Smithfield, London","author":"Grainger I.","year":"2011"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_34_1","volume-title":"Impact head injury","author":"Gurdjian E. D.","year":"1975"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/449082"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_36_1","first-page":"297","article-title":"Age estimation up to 16 years of age based on dental development","volume":"25","author":"Gustafson G.","year":"1974","journal-title":"Odeontologisk Revy"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1556-4029.2009.01310.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_38_1","first-page":"119","volume-title":"Death in towns: Urban responses to the dying and the dead, 100\u20131600","author":"Harding V.","year":"1992"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_39_1","volume-title":"Excavations at Sandwell priory and hall, 1982\u20138: A mesolithic settlement, medieval monastery and post\u2010medieval country house in West Bromwich","author":"Hodder M. A.","year":"1991"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_40_1","volume-title":"The waning of the middles ages: A study of the forms of life, thought and art in France and the Netherlands in the XIVth and XVth centuries","author":"Huizinga J.","year":"1924"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1054\/ijom.2001.0056"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_42_1","first-page":"149","volume-title":"Armour from the Battle of Wisby, 1361 vol I","author":"Ingelmark B. E.","year":"1939"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1094","DOI":"10.1520\/JFS11776J","article-title":"Age estimation from the rib by phase analysis: White males","volume":"29","author":"Is\u00e7an M. Y.","year":"1984","journal-title":"Journal of Forensic Sciences"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1520\/JFS11018J","article-title":"Age estimation from the rib by phase analysis: White females","volume":"30","author":"Is\u00e7an M. Y.","year":"1985","journal-title":"Journal of Forensic Sciences"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_45_1","volume-title":"Stories from the skeleton: Behavioral reconstruction in human osteology","author":"Jurmain R. D.","year":"2005"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.21002"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_47_1","volume-title":"Violence in medieval society","author":"Kaeuper R. W.","year":"2000"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/past\/177.1.55"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/oa.746"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_50_1","first-page":"237","volume-title":"The Routledge handbook of the bioarchaeology of human conflict","author":"Kjellstr\u00f6m A.","year":"2014"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.22102"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_52_1","volume-title":"Forensic pathology","author":"Knight B.","year":"1991"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_53_1","first-page":"263","volume-title":"The Routledge handbook of the bioarchaeology of human conflict","author":"Kn\u00fcsel C.","year":"2014"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/oa.2462"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1556-4029.2008.00725.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1556-4029.2009.01072.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00766097.2016.1147787"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_58_1","volume-title":"The Jewish burial ground at Jewbury","author":"Lilley J. M.","year":"1994"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/9781444319620"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330680103"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpp.2016.02.006"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_62_1","volume-title":"Thoracic response to undefeated body armour (HFM\u2010024)","author":"Mayorga M.","year":"2010"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_63_1","volume-title":"Wharram, a study of settlement on the Yorkshire Wolds","author":"Mays S.","year":"2007"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_64_1","first-page":"73","article-title":"Skeletal age at death: Accuracy of age determination and implications for human demography","volume":"55","author":"Meindl R. S.","year":"1985","journal-title":"Human Biology"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-06560-0_1"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_66_1","first-page":"36","article-title":"Epidemiology of livestock\u2010related injuries in a major trauma center in Kashan, Iran","volume":"16","author":"Mohammadzadeh M.","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chinese Journal of Traumatology"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1385\/FSMP:2:4:221"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_68_1","first-page":"585","article-title":"Fracture characteristics of perimortem trauma in skeletal material","volume":"3","author":"Moraitis K.","year":"2008","journal-title":"The Internet Journal of Biological Anthropology"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_69_1","first-page":"90","volume-title":"Blood red roses: The archaeology of a mass grave from the Battle of Towton AD 1461","author":"Novak S. A.","year":"2000"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01406207"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330300214"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00068-012-0175-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_73_1","first-page":"337","volume-title":"Human osteology in archaeology and forensic science","author":"Roberts C. A.","year":"2006"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_74_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/0019-5278.38458"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_75_1","first-page":"321","volume-title":"Forensic osteology","author":"Sauer N. J.","year":"1998"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00005373-198903000-00020"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_77_1","volume-title":"Developmental juvenile osteology","author":"Scheuer L.","year":"2000"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_78_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Your chi\u2010square test is statistically significant: Now what?","volume":"20","author":"Sharpe D.","year":"2015","journal-title":"Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_79_1","volume-title":"Calendar of coroners rolls of the City of London","author":"Sharpe R.R.","year":"1913"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/014107689008300206"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_81_1","volume-title":"The impact of plague in Tudor and Stuart England","author":"Slack P.","year":"1985"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_82_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.22083"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_83_1","volume-title":"Cemeteries of the church and priory of St Andrew, Fishergate","author":"Stroud G.","year":"1993"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_84_1","volume-title":"The mercery of London: Trade, goods, and people, 1130\u20131578","author":"Sutton A.","year":"2005"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_85_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1515\/9781846158209","volume-title":"Torture and brutality in medieval literature: Negotiations of national identity","author":"Tracy L.","year":"2012"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_86_1","first-page":"461","article-title":"Differentiation of perimortem and postmortem trauma using taphonomic indicators","volume":"44","author":"Ubelaker D.","year":"1995","journal-title":"Journal of Forensic Sciences"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_87_1","volume-title":"Istanbul protocol: Manual on the effective investigation and documentation of torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment","author":"United Nations Office for Human Rights","year":"2004"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_88_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.9783\/9781512808728"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_89_1","volume-title":"Biostatistical analysis","author":"Zar J. H.","year":"1999"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_90_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcms.2011.08.012"}],"container-title":["American Journal of Physical Anthropology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1002%2Fajpa.23288","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/ajpa.23288","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,26]],"date-time":"2024-06-26T02:34:00Z","timestamp":1719369240000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/ajpa.23288"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,9]]},"references-count":89,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,11]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1002\/ajpa.23288"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ajpa.23288","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["0002-9483","1096-8644"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0002-9483","type":"print"},{"value":"1096-8644","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,9]]}}}