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We examine physiological stress in two skeletal series from Greek Himera: (1) nine mass graves from the battles of Himera (480 and 409 BCE) and (2) Himeran civilians (648\u2010409 BCE). Civilians are assumed to have died from multiple causes, including ill health leading to their deaths. Individuals from the battles presumably died while in relatively good health, in battle. More skeletal stress among civilians than battle casualties would support the idea that skeletal stress is a sign of frailty at Himera. We compare variation in skeletal stress between and among civilians and battle casualties.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Materials and methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis, linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH), and sub\u2010periosteal new bone formation, were examined in 474 individuals (mass graves <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u200964; civilians <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u2009410).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Chi\u2010square tests showed significantly higher prevalence of LEH (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20090.04) and sub\u2010periosteal new bone formation (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20090.05) among young and mid\u2010aged adult male civilians than mass grave casualties. Skeletal stress was also lower in the earlier battle, and varied among civilians with burial style.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>Our findings generally support the hypothesis that skeletal stress is evidence of frailty (i.e., leading to greater risk of mortality). However, the relationship between stress and frailty is complicated by social factors, when considering historical context. In particular, a possible \u201csoldier\u2010class\u201d may have experienced less stress than the overall civilian population.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.23624","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,3]],"date-time":"2018-09-03T08:27:04Z","timestamp":1535963224000},"page":"161-172","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Examining the osteological paradox: Skeletal stress in mass graves versus civilians at the Greek colony of Himera (Sicily)"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"167","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6004-8039","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Britney","family":"Kyle","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology University of Northern Colorado  Greeley 80639 Colorado"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laurie J.","family":"Reitsema","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology University of Georgia  Jackson, St Athens Georgia 30602"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Janelle","family":"Tyler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology The Ohio State University  Columbus Ohio 43210"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pier Francesco","family":"Fabbri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cultural Heritage Universit\u00e0 del Salento  Lecce Italy 73100"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefano","family":"Vassallo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Archaeological Heritage Section Soprintendenza BB.CC.AA. di Palermo  Palermo Sicily 90139"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_8_2_1","first-page":"229","volume-title":"Integrating archaeological demography: Multidisciplinary approaches to prehistoric population. 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