{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T15:20:21Z","timestamp":1785597621337,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":98,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,30]],"date-time":"2022-03-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1648598400000},"content-version":"am","delay-in-days":365,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#am"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,30]],"date-time":"2021-03-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1617062400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1934521"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1934521"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["American J Phys Anthropol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec><jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title><jats:p>We leverage recent bioarchaeological approaches and life history theory to address the implications of the osteological paradox in a study population. The goal of this article is to evaluate morbidity and mortality patterns as well as variability in the risk of disease and death during the Late Intermediate period (LIP; 950\u20131450 C.E.) in the Nasca highlands of Peru. We demonstrate how the concurrent use of multiple analytical techniques and life history theory can engage the osteological paradox and provide salient insights into the study of stress, frailty, and resilience in past populations.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Materials and methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Crania from LIP burial contexts in the Nasca highlands were examined for cribra orbitalia (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u00a0=\u00a0325) and porotic hyperostosis (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u00a0=\u00a0270). All age groups and both sexes are represented in the sample. Survivor\/nonsurvivor analysis assessed demographic differences in lesion frequency and severity. Hazard models were generated to assess differences in survivorship. The relationship between dietary diversity and heterogeneity in morbidity was assessed using stable \u03b4<jats:sup>15<\/jats:sup>N and \u03b4<jats:sup>13<\/jats:sup>C isotope values for bone collagen and carbonate. One hundred and twenty\u2010four crania were directly AMS radiocarbon dated, allowing for a diachronic analysis of morbidity and mortality.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>The frequency and expression of both orbital and vault lesions increases significantly during the LIP. Survivor\/nonsurvivor analysis indicates cranial lesions co\u2010vary with frailty rather than robusticity or longevity. Hazard models show (1) decreasing survivorship with the transition into the LIP, (2) significantly lower adult life expectancy for females compared to males, and (3) individuals with cranial lesions have lower survivorship across the life course. Stable isotope results show very little dietary diversity. Mortality risk and frequency of pathological skeletal lesions were highest during Phase III (1300\u20131450 C.E.) of the LIP.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>Results provide compelling evidence of increasing physiological stress and mortality in the Nasca highlands during the LIP, but also reveal substantial heterogeneity in frailty and the risk of death. Certain members of society experienced a heavier disease burden and higher mortality compared to their contemporaries. Elevated levels of disease and lethal trauma among females account for some of the sex differences in survivorship but cannot explain the large degree of female\u2010biased mortality. We hypothesize that parental investment in males or increased female fertility rates may explain these differences.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.24279","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,30]],"date-time":"2021-03-30T08:00:26Z","timestamp":1617091226000},"page":"816-833","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Using a multimethod life history approach to navigate the osteological paradox: A case study from Prehispanic Nasca, Peru"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"175","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3190-470X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Weston C.","family":"McCool","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology University of California  Santa Barbara California USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amy S.","family":"Anderson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology University of California  Santa Barbara California USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Douglas J.","family":"Kennett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology University of California  Santa Barbara California USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_9_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.22905"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5744\/bi.2017.1005"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_4_1","volume-title":"Mothers, babies, and disease later in life","author":"Barker D. J. P.","year":"1994"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_5_1","volume-title":"Human osteology: A laboratory manual and field manual","author":"Bass W.","year":"2005"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bjc.6600055"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_7_1","unstructured":"Bevan A. &Crema E. R.(2019).rcarbon v1.3.0: Methods for calibrating and analysing radiocarbon dates.https:\/\/cran.r-project.org\/web\/packages\/rcarbon\/vignettes\/rcarbon.html"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02447215"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_9_1","first-page":"229","volume-title":"Integrating archaeological demography: Multidisciplinary approaches to prehistoric population","author":"Boldsen J. L.","year":"1997"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.20085"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.20467"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511542428.005"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1412511112"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.23701"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-809738-0.00002-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/281750"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_17_1","unstructured":"Buikstra J. E. &Ubelaker D. H.(1994).Standards for data collection from human skeletal remains. Arkansas Archeological Survey Research Series."},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_2_9_18_1","first-page":"184","article-title":"Effect of socio\u2010cultural factors on the preference for the sex of children by women in Ahmedabad district","volume":"32","author":"Chavada M.","year":"2009","journal-title":"Health and Population: Perspectives and Issues"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_19_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Transformations of society and power in Ancient Nasca","volume":"2","author":"Conlee C. A.","year":"2015","journal-title":"Peruvian Archaeology"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/oa.2757"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_21_1","volume-title":"R: A language and environment for statistical computing","author":"Core Team R.","year":"2019"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10814-008-9021-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.21316"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.21228"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.21622"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.22350"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2012.01.019"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10814-015-9084-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0705460105"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5744\/bi.2017.1009"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/1947461X.2017.1391469"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaapos.2008.10.017"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2006.03.012"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/emph\/eoaa017"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.24020"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goodman A. H.(1993). On the interpretation of health from skeletal remains.","DOI":"10.1086\/204170"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.22820"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_38_1","first-page":"11","volume-title":"Reconstructing lifeways in ancient California: Stable isotope evidence of foraging behavior, life history strategies, and kinship patterns","author":"Greenwald A. M.","year":"2016"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2458\/azu_js_rc.55.16783"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_40_1","first-page":"170","volume-title":"Offspring: Human fertility behavior in biodemographic perspective","author":"Kaplan H. S.","year":"2003"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_41_1","unstructured":"Kellner C. M.(2002).Coping with environmental and social challenges in prehistoric Peru: Bioarchaeological analyses of Nasca populations(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Department of Anthropology University of California Santa Barbara."},{"key":"e_1_2_9_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms14115"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aba3245"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_44_1","volume-title":"War before civilization","author":"Keeley L. H.","year":"1996"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.22574"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpp.2015.10.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpp.2016.11.004"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpp.2019.06.008"},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_2_9_49_1","first-page":"17","article-title":"Nitrogen isotope analysis in the Arctic: Identifying fish processing and marine resource use through enthnoarchaeological soil analysis on Nelson Island, Alaska","volume":"9","author":"Knudson K. J.","year":"2011","journal-title":"Alaska Journal of Anthropology"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.23624"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_51_1","volume-title":"Photographic regional atlas of bone disease: A guide to pathologic and normal variation in the human skeleton","author":"Mann R. W.","year":"2013"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.23019"},{"issue":"59","key":"e_1_2_9_53_1","first-page":"116","article-title":"Bioarchaeological contributions to the study of violence","volume":"156","author":"Martin D. L.","year":"2014","journal-title":"American Journal of Physical Anthropology"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1556\/JEP.6.2008.3.1"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/laq.2017.28"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_56_1","unstructured":"McCool W. C.(2020).The human ecology of conflict: A case study from the Prehispanic Nasca highlands of Peru(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Department of Anthropology University of California Santa Barbara."},{"key":"e_1_2_9_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.24205"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.24091"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/01459740.1978.9986939"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.22047"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470245842.ch18"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_62_1","unstructured":"Mueller\u2010Scheessel N. &Hinz M.(2017).Package \u2018mortAAR\u2019. Methods 3 pp. 3.https:\/\/cran.r-project.org\/web\/packages\/mortAAR\/vignettes\/mortAAR_vignette_extended.html"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.21291"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/oa.2549"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.23902"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.24131"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330790106"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_68_1","first-page":"190","volume-title":"Peruvian prehistory","author":"Parsons J. R.","year":"1988"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2011.01.027"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033822200030903"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.21563"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.23258"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41477-020-00835-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_74_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpp.2019.07.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_75_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5194\/cp-11-27-2015"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/oa.1128"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/03122417.2019.1644863"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2012.10.029"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_79_1","unstructured":"So\u00dfna V. (2014).Impacts of climate variability on pre\u2010hispanic settlement behavior in South Peru: The Northern R\u00edo Grande de Nasca drainage between 1500 BCE and 1532 CE(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences."},{"key":"e_1_2_9_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.24218"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_81_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ehb.2005.05.006"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_82_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330740410"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_83_1","first-page":"36","volume-title":"Human paleopathology: Current syntheses and future options","author":"Stuart\u2010Macadam P.","year":"1991"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_84_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.24170"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_85_1","first-page":"2","volume":"6","author":"Stuiver M.","year":"2010","journal-title":"Calib Radiocarbon Calibration Program"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_86_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/evan.21754"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_87_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.22602"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_88_1","unstructured":"Toohey J. L.(2009).Community organization militarism and ethnogenesis in the late prehistoric northern highlands of Peru(unpublished doctoral dissertation). Department of Anthropology University of California Santa Barbara."},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_9_89_1","first-page":"75","article-title":"Violence in times of change: The late intermediate period in San Pedro de Atacama","volume":"37","author":"Torres\u2010Rouff C.","year":"2005","journal-title":"Chungara: Revista de Antropolog\u00eda Chilena"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_90_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpp.2019.09.001"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_91_1","first-page":"25","volume-title":"Long\u2010term consequences of early environment: Growth, development and the lifepsan developmental perspective","author":"Ulijaszek S. J.","year":"1996"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_92_1","unstructured":"UsherB. M.(2000).A multistate model for health and mortality in paleodemography: Tirup cemetery(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Department of Anthropology Pennsylvania State University"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_93_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.22552"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_94_1","volume-title":"The human bone manual","author":"White T. D.","year":"2005"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_95_1","unstructured":"Wilson J. J.(2010).Modeling life through death in late prehistoric west\u2010central Illinois: An assessment of paleodemographic and paleoepidemiological variability(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Department of Anthropology State University of New York at Binghamton."},{"key":"e_1_2_9_96_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.22601"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_97_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511542428.007"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_98_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/204084"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_99_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1021200925063"}],"container-title":["American Journal of Physical Anthropology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/ajpa.24279","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1002\/ajpa.24279","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/am-pdf\/10.1002\/ajpa.24279","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/ajpa.24279","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,25]],"date-time":"2023-08-25T19:05:18Z","timestamp":1692990318000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/ajpa.24279"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,30]]},"references-count":98,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,8]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1002\/ajpa.24279"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ajpa.24279","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["0002-9483","1096-8644"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0002-9483","type":"print"},{"value":"1096-8644","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,30]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2020-09-03","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2021-03-15","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2021-03-30","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}