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Other objectives are to assess mandibular shape variation and homogeneity within <jats:italic>Ouranopithecus<\/jats:italic>, explore the effects of size on mandibular shape, and explore the degree of mandibular sexual size dimorphism in <jats:italic>Ouranopithecus<\/jats:italic>.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Materials and methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>The comparative sample comprises digitized mandibles from adult extant great apes. The 3D analysis includes three datasets: one with landmarks registered on the mandibular corpus and symphysis of mandibles preserving both sides, one on hemimandibles only, and one focused on the ramus and gonial area. Multivariate statistical analyses were conducted, such as ordination analyses (PCA), intra\u2010specific Procrustes distances pairs, pairwise male\u2013female centroid size differences, and correlation analyses.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>The male and female specimens of <jats:italic>Ouranopithecus<\/jats:italic> have mandibular shapes that are quite similar, although differences exist. The Procrustes distances results suggest more shape variation in <jats:italic>Ouranopithecus<\/jats:italic> than in the extant great apes. <jats:italic>Ouranopithecus<\/jats:italic> shows some similarities in mandibular shape to the larger great apes, <jats:italic>Gorilla<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Pongo<\/jats:italic>. Moreover, the degree of sexual dimorphism in the small <jats:italic>Ouranopithecus<\/jats:italic> sample is greater than any of the great apes. Based on our correlation analyses of principal components (PC) with size, some PCs are significantly correlated with size, with correlation varying from moderate to substantial.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>This study attempted to understand better the variation within the mandibles of <jats:italic>O<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>macedoniensis<\/jats:italic> and the expression of sexual dimorphism in this taxon in more detail than has been done previously. The overall mandibular morphology of <jats:italic>Ouranopithecus<\/jats:italic> shows some similarities to those of the larger great apes, which likely reflects similarities in size. Compared to <jats:italic>Gorilla<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Pongo<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>O<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>macedoniensis<\/jats:italic> shows an elevated degree of morphological variation, although limitations relating to sample size apply. Sexual dimorphism in the mandibles of <jats:italic>O<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>macedoniensis<\/jats:italic> appears to be relatively high, seemingly greater than in <jats:italic>Gorilla<\/jats:italic> and high even in comparison to <jats:italic>Pongo<\/jats:italic>, but this again is possibly in part an artifact of a small sample size.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.24420","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,21]],"date-time":"2021-10-21T11:40:55Z","timestamp":1634816455000},"page":"48-62","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["<scp>3D<\/scp> geometric morphometrics analysis of mandibular fragments of <i>Ouranopithecus macedoniensis<\/i> from the late Miocene deposits of Central Macedonia, Greece"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"177","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8199-7126","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Melania","family":"Ioannidou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Paleoanthropology, Senckenberg Center for Human Evolution and Paleoenvironment Eberhard Karls University of T\u00fcbingen  T\u00fcbingen Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"George D.","family":"Koufos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geology, Laboratory of Geology &amp; Paleontology Aristotle University of Thessaloniki  Thessaloniki Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Louis","family":"de Bonis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire de Pal\u00e9ontologie, Evolution, Pal\u00e9o\u00e9cosyst\u00e8mes, Pal\u00e9oprimatologie (PALEVOPRIM) \u2013 UMR CNRS 7262 Universit\u00e9 des Poitiers  Poitiers France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5998-4794","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katerina","family":"Harvati","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Paleoanthropology, Senckenberg Center for Human Evolution and Paleoenvironment Eberhard Karls University of T\u00fcbingen  T\u00fcbingen Germany"},{"name":"DFG Centre of Advanced Studies \u2018Words, Bones, Genes, Tools\u2019 Eberhard Karls University of T\u00fcbingen  T\u00fcbingen Germany"},{"name":"Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens  Athens Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_10_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/11250000409356545"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.12035"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_4_1","first-page":"105","article-title":"Contrasts in the mandibles and mandibular teeth of the chimpanzee, orangutan and gorilla","volume":"81","author":"Aitchison J.","year":"1965","journal-title":"The Dental Magazine and Oral Topics"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330470213"},{"volume-title":"Morphometric tools for landmark data: Geometry and biology","year":"1991","author":"Bookstein F. 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