{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T20:31:31Z","timestamp":1793392291617,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":88,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,17]],"date-time":"2024-09-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1726531200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000169","name":"Division of Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BCS\u20102200047"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BCS\u20102200047"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000169","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000169","name":"Division of Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BCS\u20102341234"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BCS\u20102341234"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000169","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["American Journal of Biological Anthropology"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec><jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title><jats:p>Understanding disease transmission is a fundamental challenge in ecology. We used transmission potential networks to investigate whether a gastrointestinal protozoan (<jats:italic>Blastocystis<\/jats:italic> spp.) is spread through social, environmental, and\/or zoonotic pathways in rural northeast Madagascar.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Materials and Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>We obtained survey data, household GPS coordinates, and fecal samples from 804 participants. Surveys inquired about social contacts, agricultural activity, and sociodemographic characteristics. Fecal samples were screened for <jats:italic>Blastocystis<\/jats:italic> using DNA metabarcoding. We also tested 133 domesticated animals for <jats:italic>Blastocystis<\/jats:italic>. We used network autocorrelation models and permutation tests (network <jats:italic>k<\/jats:italic>\u2010test) to determine whether networks reflecting different transmission pathways predicted infection.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>We identified six distinct <jats:italic>Blastocystis<\/jats:italic> subtypes among study participants and their domesticated animals. Among the 804 human participants, 74% (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u2009598) were positive for at least one <jats:italic>Blastocystis<\/jats:italic> subtype. Close proximity to infected households was the most informative predictor of infection with any subtype (model averaged OR [95% CI]: 1.56 [1.33\u20131.82]), and spending free time with infected participants was not an informative predictor of infection (model averaged OR [95% CI]: 0.95 [0.82\u20131.10]). No human participant was infected with the same subtype as the domesticated animals they owned.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>Our findings suggest that <jats:italic>Blastocystis<\/jats:italic> is most likely spread through environmental pathways within villages, rather than through social or animal contact. The most likely mechanisms involve fecal contamination of the environment by infected individuals or shared food and water sources. These findings shed new light on human\u2010pathogen ecology and mechanisms for reducing disease transmission in rural, low\u2010income settings.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.25030","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,17]],"date-time":"2024-09-17T19:55:00Z","timestamp":1726602900000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Disentangling social, environmental, and zoonotic transmission pathways of a gastrointestinal protozoan (<i>Blastocystis<\/i> spp.) in northeast Madagascar"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"185","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8166-8704","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tyler M.","family":"Barrett","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Evolutionary Anthropology Duke University  Durham North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2206-1125","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Georgia C.","family":"Titcomb","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology Colorado State University  Fort Collins Colorado USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4099-3081","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mark M.","family":"Janko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Duke Global Health Institute Duke University  Durham North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1078-7623","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michelle","family":"Pender","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Duke Global Health Institute Duke University  Durham North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4897-9428","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kayla","family":"Kauffman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology University of California Santa Barbara  Santa Barbara California USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1736-3767","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alma","family":"Solis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Evolutionary Anthropology Duke University  Durham North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maheriniaina Toky","family":"Randriamoria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Association Vahatra  Antananarivo Madagascar"},{"name":"Zoologie et Biodiversit\u00e9 Animale, Domaine Sciences et Technologies Universit\u00e9 d'Antananarivo  Antananarivo Madagascar"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0449-8582","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hillary S.","family":"Young","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology University of California Santa Barbara  Santa Barbara California USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0648-7230","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peter J.","family":"Mucha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics Dartmouth College  Hanover New Hampshire USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3311-4173","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James","family":"Moody","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology Duke University  Durham North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1325-7425","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Randall A.","family":"Kramer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Duke Global Health Institute Duke University  Durham North Carolina USA"},{"name":"Nicholas School of the Environment Duke University  Durham North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2455-2956","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Voahangy","family":"Soarimalala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Association Vahatra  Antananarivo Madagascar"},{"name":"Institut des Sciences et Techniques de l'Environnement University of Fianarantsoa  Fianarantsoa Madagascar"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9330-2873","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Charles L.","family":"Nunn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Evolutionary Anthropology Duke University  Durham North Carolina USA"},{"name":"Duke Global Health Institute Duke University  Durham North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_8_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2012.300908"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parint.2016.05.007"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac960"},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_2_8_5_1","first-page":"173","article-title":"Blastocystis hominis transmission by non\u2010potable water: A case report in Italy","volume":"41","author":"Angelici M. C.","year":"2018","journal-title":"The New Microbiologica"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2016.0083"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-6-40"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_8_1","volume-title":"The changing Samoans: Behavior and health in transition","author":"Baker P. T.","year":"1986"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2166\/wh.2010.127"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2007.1100"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.anthro.27.1.247"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_12_1","unstructured":"Barto\u0144 K.(2023).MuMIn: Multi\u2010Model Inference.https:\/\/cran.r-project.org\/web\/packages\/MuMIn\/index.html"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2666-5247(23)00034-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(sici)1096-8644(199705)103:1<7::Aid-ajpa2>3.0.Co;2-u"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/ele.12300"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00220388.2011.579394"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03694-x"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-294X.2012.05653.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_19_1","volume-title":"Model selection and multi\u2010model inference: A practical information\u2010Theoric approach","author":"Burnham K. P.","year":"2002"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_20_1","unstructured":"Butts C. T.(2023).Sna: Tools for social network analysis.https:\/\/cran.r-project.org\/web\/packages\/sna\/index.html"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nmeth.3869"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1755-0998.12108"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/1747423X.2023.2168778"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1645\/13-383.1"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-14158-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002611"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10393-020-01478-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_28_1","unstructured":"Cs\u00e1rdi G. Nepusz T. Traag V. Horv\u00e1t S. Zanini F. Noom D. &M\u00fcller K.(2023).Igraph: Network analysis and visualization. Inhttps:\/\/CRAN.R-project.org\/package=igraph"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1009253"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1002601107"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_31_1","first-page":"369","volume-title":"Spatial statistics: Past, present, and future","author":"Doreian P.","year":"1990"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-14-164"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00045608.2012.671129"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.2003769"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0236924"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3998\/jar.0521004.0061.202"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1755-0998.13101"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3998\/mpub.10398"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2019.02.013"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_40_1","volume-title":"Socio\u2010economic, land use and value chain perspectives on vanilla farming in the SAVA region (north\u2010eastern Madagascar): The diversity turn baseline study (DTBS)","author":"H\u00e4nke H.","year":"2018"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1021982324396"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12571-021-01179-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.23736"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2020.09.031"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.746340"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2021.0690"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/pnasnexus\/pgad227"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41424-018-0027-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2019.09.001"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10745-015-9791-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/645729"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abb1430"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0378-8733(01)00049-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_54_1","volume-title":"Health, risk, and adversity","author":"Leonard W. R.","year":"2009"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/03014460.2012.759621"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/519806"},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_2_8_57_1","first-page":"50","article-title":"A general permutation\u2010based QAP analysis approach for dyadic data from multiple groups","volume":"22","author":"Martin J. L.","year":"1999","journal-title":"Connect"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.14806\/ej.17.1.200"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/719266"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-018-0521-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5812\/sdme.67670"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780198565857.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctv2ks6tbb.36"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/zph.12522"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_65_1","volume-title":"Ggraph: An implementation of grammar of graphics for graphs and networks","author":"Pedersen T. L.","year":"2022"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0117909"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-5-37"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.16-0074"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_69_1","unstructured":"Qualtrics. Provo Utah.https:\/\/www.qualtrics.com"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_70_1","volume-title":"R: A language and environment for statistical computing","author":"R Core Team","year":"2023"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2014.0110"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41893-019-0293-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/emph\/eoy006"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_74_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2016.08.018"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_75_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.16-0706"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511983726"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210x.12770"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1525\/maq.2003.17.4.423"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2008.09.010"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.71.9.5619-5620.2005"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_81_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/emph\/eoad030"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_82_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00265-010-1037-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_83_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.22573"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_84_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.05224"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_85_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2016.0166"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_86_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2656.12137"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_87_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/cbo9780511815478"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_88_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-020-01002-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_89_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.38.4.1324-1330.2000"}],"container-title":["American Journal of Biological Anthropology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/am-pdf\/10.1002\/ajpa.25030","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/ajpa.25030","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,22]],"date-time":"2024-10-22T12:46:09Z","timestamp":1729601169000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/ajpa.25030"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,17]]},"references-count":88,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,11]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1002\/ajpa.25030"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ajpa.25030","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["2692-7691","2692-7691"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2692-7691","type":"print"},{"value":"2692-7691","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,17]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2024-04-30","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2024-09-05","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2024-09-17","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}],"article-number":"e25030"}}