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The aim of this study is to determine if mandibular premolar variation aligns with predictions derived from the PCM.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Materials and Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Using three\u2010dimensional (3D) scans and two\u2010dimensional (2D) images of dental casts representing a contemporary human sample (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u200963), we collected crown area, cusp area, and intercusp distance measurements, including 3D distances to account for differential cusp height. After controlling for size variation, relative measurements were subjected to analyses of variance,\n                      <jats:italic>t<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2010tests, dichotomized generalized linear model regressions, and linear regressions to examine their relationship with lingual cusp number.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Relative intercusp distance between the mesiolingual cusp and its distal neighbor differs significantly between two and three lingual cusped premolars; those with two lingual cusps exhibit greater distance, on average. Two lingual cusped P\n                      <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                      s exhibit greater 2D distance between the buccal and mesiolingual cusps. Models involving the relative area of the mesiolingual cusp and its distal neighbor were significant, with three lingual cusped P\n                      <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                      s exhibiting smaller cusps.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      These findings partially align with PCM\u2010derived expectations. The mesiolingual cusp is involved in all significant findings, which suggests its precursory enamel knot placement and inhibitory zoning have the greatest influence on mandibular premolar morphology. Generally, 2D and 3D analyses yield similar results, but the strength of the relationship is greater for 3D measurements in P\n                      <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                      s, which are characterized by marked cusp height disparities.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.70178","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]],"date-time":"2025-12-09T15:30:41Z","timestamp":1765294241000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Patterning Cascade Model and Human Mandibular Premolar Variation"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"188","author":[{"given":"Molly","family":"Militello","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology University of Arkansas  Fayetteville Arkansas USA"},{"name":"School of Veterinary Medicine University of Wisconsin\u2010Madison  Madison Wisconsin USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dori E.","family":"Kenessey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology University of Nevada  Reno Nevada USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3866-4999","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christopher M.","family":"Stojanowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Bioarchaeological Research, School of Human Evolution and Social Change Arizona State University  Tempe Arizona USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9744-4203","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kathleen S.","family":"Paul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology University of Arkansas  Fayetteville Arkansas USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_13_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0305123"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469\u2010185X.1956.tb01551.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_4_1","volume-title":"Essentials of Oral Histology and Embryology\u2010E\u2010Book: A Clinical Approach","author":"Chiego D. 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