{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T14:17:14Z","timestamp":1790000234393,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]],"date-time":"2026-08-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786665600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":13,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785542400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JP22H04929"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP22H04929"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JP25K16477"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP25K16477"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009037","name":"Science and Technology Research Partnership for Sustainable Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JPMJSA1702"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JPMJSA1702"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009037","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["American Journal of Biological Anthropology"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Caregiving during early childhood emerges from a dynamic interplay between maternal and allomaternal contributions. This study aimed to challenge polarized portrayals of hunter\u2010gatherer childcare as either \u201cmother\u2010centered\u201d or \u201ccooperative\u201d and provide empirical evidence for an integrative cross\u2010cultural approach.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Materials and Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We compared caregiving structures in two hunter\u2010gatherer populations positioned at contrasting ends of a continuum of child\u2010rearing strategies: the !Xun in southern Africa, portrayed as emphasizing mother\u2013child closeness, and the Baka in central Africa, described as exemplifying cooperative caregiving. Over 500\u2009h of caregiving interactions involving 40 children (1\u201359\u2009months) were recorded using a standardized focal\u2010follow protocol with 30\u2010s interval coding. Rates of maternal, allomaternal, and peer\u2010based caregiving behaviors were analyzed using generalized additive mixed models.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Maternal holding did not differ between the !Xun and the Baka, underscoring the central role of mothers during infancy. However, breastfeeding was less frequent among the !Xun than among the Baka. Allomaternal holding was less frequent among the !Xun than among the Baka. When focusing on child and adolescent allomaternal caregivers, child\u2010holding was more frequent among the !Xun than among the Baka during a period that included the likely !Xun weaning period. Care by young allomaternal caregivers may have played a supportive role during the earlier weaning period associated with sedentarization.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Human caregiving systems should not be understood as either \u201cmother\u2010centered\u201d or \u201ccooperative\u201d. Rather, they should be understood as flexible combinations of interrelated components\u2014including maternal, allomaternal, and peer\u2010based care\u2014shaped by ecological, social, and developmental factors.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.70345","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,15]],"date-time":"2026-08-15T02:55:31Z","timestamp":1786762531000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Reframing Mother\u2013Child Closeness and Cooperative Caregiving: A Comparative Study of Two Hunter\u2010Gatherer Populations"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"190","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-3836-8871","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ayana","family":"Tanaka","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Human\u2010Environment Studies Kyushu University  Fukuoka Japan"},{"name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science  Tokyo Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Haneul","family":"Jang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UMI Source Universit\u00e9 Paris\u2010Saclay, UVSQ, IRD  Guyancourt France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8167-1348","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shun","family":"Hongo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Humanity and Nature  Kyoto Japan"},{"name":"The Hakubi Center for Advanced Research Kyoto University  Kyoto Japan"},{"name":"Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies Kyoto University  Kyoto Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Akira","family":"Takada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies Kyoto University  Kyoto Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_10_2_1","volume-title":"Attachment and Loss. 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