{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T18:34:37Z","timestamp":1789670077036,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":287,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,24]],"date-time":"2025-08-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755993600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":23,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001798","name":"Edith Cowan University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001798","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["alz-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Alzheimer's &amp;amp; Dementia"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:label\/>\n                    <jats:p>Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder and the most common cause of dementia. AD diagnosis often involves a thorough assessment, including clinical evaluation, cognitive testing, medical history examination, genetic testing, and biomarker analysis. Currently, the invasive nature and high costs of biomarker testing, such as cerebrospinal fluid analysis and neuroimaging, have limited the early detection and intervention of the disease. Therefore, researchers have explored cheaper and less invasive options, such as ocular imaging. This review discusses the close relationship between the eye and the central nervous system and ocular changes as a potential non\u2010invasive AD biomarker. Ocular changes in AD have frequently been reported in the literature, particularly in the later stages of the disease. However, identifying biomarkers specifically attributable to AD remains a challenge. Additionally, this review provides a comprehensive overview of existing studies and highlights potential pathways for enhancing AD detection through ocular structural and functional evaluation.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Highlights<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\">\n                        <jats:list-item>\n                          <jats:p>Widespread screening for early detection of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is limited by cost and time constraints with current methods.<\/jats:p>\n                        <\/jats:list-item>\n                        <jats:list-item>\n                          <jats:p>Non\u2010invasive and inexpensive methods are needed to overcome these difficulties.<\/jats:p>\n                        <\/jats:list-item>\n                        <jats:list-item>\n                          <jats:p>The eye is readily accessible and has shared developmental origins, neurobiology, and neurochemistry with the brain.<\/jats:p>\n                        <\/jats:list-item>\n                        <jats:list-item>\n                          <jats:p>The expanding field of ocular biomarker studies needs larger, well\u2010characterized cohorts and longitudinal studies to understand the ocular changes for preclinical AD screening.<\/jats:p>\n                        <\/jats:list-item>\n                        <jats:list-item>\n                          <jats:p>Standards should be established for more methodical investigative approaches to identify ocular biomarkers that are specifically attributable to AD.<\/jats:p>\n                        <\/jats:list-item>\n                      <\/jats:list>\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  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Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ralph N","family":"Martins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alzheimer's Research Australia, Ralph and Patricia Sarich Neuroscience Research Institute QEII Medical Centre Nedlands Western Australia Australia"},{"name":"Centre of Excellence for Alzheimer's Disease Research and Care, School of Medical and Health Sciences Edith Cowan University  Joondalup Western Australia Australia"},{"name":"Macquarie Medical School Macquarie University  Macquarie Park New South Wales Australia"},{"name":"Lions Alzheimer's Foundation  Nedlands Western Australia Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_13_2_1","unstructured":"WHO.Dementia.World Health Organization. 31 March 2025. 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