{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T14:23:44Z","timestamp":1791296624660,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":111,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,5]],"date-time":"2013-02-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1360022400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["The Anatomical Record"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2013,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The limb bones of an elephant are considered to experience similar peak locomotory stresses as a shrew. \u201cSafety factors\u201d are maintained across the entire range of body masses through a combination of robusticity of long bones, postural variation, and modification of gait. The relative contributions of these variables remain uncertain. To test the role of shape change, we undertook X\u2010ray tomographic scans of the leg bones of 60 species of mammals and birds, and extracted geometric properties. The maximum resistible forces the bones could withstand before yield under compressive, bending, and torsional loads were calculated using standard engineering equations incorporating curvature. Positive allometric scaling of cross\u2010sectional properties with body mass was insufficient to prevent negative allometry of bending (<jats:italic>F<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>b<\/jats:sub>) and torsional maximum force (<jats:italic>F<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>t<\/jats:sub>) (and hence decreasing safety factors) in mammalian (femur <jats:italic>F<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>b<\/jats:sub><jats:bold>\u221e<\/jats:bold><jats:italic>M<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>b<\/jats:sub><jats:sup>0.76<\/jats:sup>, <jats:italic>F<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>t<\/jats:sub><jats:bold>\u221e<\/jats:bold><jats:italic>M<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>b<\/jats:sub><jats:sup>0.80<\/jats:sup>; tibia <jats:italic>F<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>b<\/jats:sub><jats:bold>\u221e<\/jats:bold><jats:italic>M<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>b<\/jats:sub><jats:sup>0.80<\/jats:sup>, <jats:italic>F<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>t<\/jats:sub><jats:bold>\u221e<\/jats:bold><jats:italic>M<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>b<\/jats:sub><jats:sup>0.76<\/jats:sup>) and avian hindlimbs (tibiotarsus <jats:italic>F<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>b<\/jats:sub><jats:bold>\u221e<\/jats:bold><jats:italic>M<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>b<\/jats:sub><jats:sup>0.88<\/jats:sup>, <jats:italic>F<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>t<\/jats:sub><jats:bold>\u221e<\/jats:bold><jats:italic>M<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>b<\/jats:sub><jats:sup>0.89<\/jats:sup>) with the exception of avian femoral <jats:italic>F<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>b<\/jats:sub> and <jats:italic>F<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>t<\/jats:sub>. The minimum angle from horizontal a bone must be held while maintaining a given safety factor under combined compressive and bending loads increases with <jats:italic>M<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>b<\/jats:sub>, with the exception of the avian femur. Postural erectness is shown as an effective means of achieving stress similarity in mammals. The scaling behavior of the avian femur is discussed in light of unusual posture and kinematics. Anat Rec, 296:395\u2013413, 2013. \u00a9 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/ar.22658","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,6,9]],"date-time":"2014-06-09T05:16:56Z","timestamp":1402291016000},"page":"395-413","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["The Role of Cross\u2010Sectional Geometry, Curvature, and Limb Posture in Maintaining Equal Safety Factors: A Computed Tomography Study"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"296","author":[{"given":"Charlotte A.","family":"Brassey","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Life Sciences University of Manchester Manchester United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrew C.","family":"Kitchener","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Natural Sciences National Museum of Scotland Edinburgh United Kingdom"},{"name":"Institute of Geography School of Geosciences University of Edinburgh Drummond Street Edinburgh United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Philip J.","family":"Withers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Henry Moseley X\u2010Ray Imaging Facility School of Materials University of Manchester Manchester United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Phillip L.","family":"Manning","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Earth Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences University of Manchester Manchester United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"William I.","family":"Sellers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Life Sciences University of Manchester Manchester United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_7_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ympev.2009.10.033"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7998.1974.tb04134.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_4_1","first-page":"109","article-title":"Factors of safety in the structure of Animals","volume":"67","author":"Alexander RMN","year":"1981","journal-title":"Sci Prog"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_5_1","volume-title":"Dynamics of Dinosaurs and Other Extinct Giants","author":"Alexander RMN","year":"1989"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7998.1983.tb04266.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7998.1992.tb04344.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7998.1981.tb04600.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00114-010-0759-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1366955"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/evan.20251"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1644\/06-MAMM-A-437.1"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5193(88)80122-X"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jmor.1052040205"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7998.1992.tb07492.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.98.1.289","article-title":"Bone strength in small mammals and bipedal birds: do safety factors change with body size?","volume":"98","author":"Biewener A","year":"1982","journal-title":"J Exp Biol"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.105.1.147"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.2740914"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9290(91)90374-V"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.01520"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7998.2009.00596.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2148-9-71"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1666\/0094-8373(2001)027<0014:EOHPIN>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.202.9.1023"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.204.6.1099","article-title":"Mechanics of limb bone loading during terrestrial locomotion in the green iguana (Iguana iguana) and American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)","volume":"204","author":"Blob R","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Exp Biol"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_26_1","volume-title":"Advanced Mechanics of Materials","author":"Boresi AP","year":"2002"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2012.0823"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1741-7007-6-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.049544"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1741-7007-10-60"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9290(85)90045-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1671\/0272-4634(2004)024[0591:MAOETI]2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_33_1","first-page":"241","article-title":"Strength indicator values of theropod long bones, with comments on limb proportions and cursorial potential","volume":"15","author":"Christiansen P","year":"1998","journal-title":"Gaia"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02724634.1999.10011180"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-4687(199902)239:2<167::AID-JMOR5>3.0.CO;2-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.059345"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1076\/0924-3860(200004)38:2;1-F;FT112"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_38_1","first-page":"51","article-title":"The variation of the cross\u2010sectional shape in the long bones of birds and mammals","volume":"19","author":"Cubo J","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ann Sci Nat Zool"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_39_1","first-page":"153","article-title":"Sagittal long bone curvature in birds","volume":"20","author":"Cubo J","year":"1999","journal-title":"Ann Sci Nat Zool"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/9781400849505"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1359\/jbmr.2003.18.4.591"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_42_1","volume-title":"Ratites and Tinamous","author":"Davies SJJF","year":"2002"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_43_1","first-page":"89","volume-title":"Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia, Volume 8: Tinamous and Ratites","author":"Davies SJJF","year":"2003"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.02703"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0904691106"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jhev.1993.1038"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jhev.1994.1023"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ympev.2009.07.020"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bone.2010.08.023"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7580.2012.01514.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_51_1","volume-title":"CRC Handbook of Avian Body Mass","author":"Dunning JB","year":"1993"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-5193(83)90206-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ympev.2010.01.033"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ar.10145"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ympev.2007.02.015"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.es.19.110188.002305"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jhev.1994.1030"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.204.4.797"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_59_1","volume-title":"How Mammals Run","author":"Gambaryan PP","year":"1976"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.00890"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plrev.2006.07.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/648509"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1139\/z93-104"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1095-6433(01)00457-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jmor.1052090107"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_66_1","first-page":"219","volume-title":"Functional Morphology in Vertebrate Palaeontology","author":"Gatesy S","year":"1995"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7998.1991.tb04794.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_68_1","volume-title":"Mechanics of Materials","author":"Gere JM","year":"2012"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7998.2009.00622.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1157704"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7580.2010.01310.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/422493a"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7998.1971.tb02189.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_74_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9290(89)90213-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_75_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5193(03)00190-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7998.1980.tb04243.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/590395"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7998.1993.tb02686.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10635150490445715"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1139\/z88-348"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_81_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.179.4079.1201"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_82_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/283026"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_83_1","first-page":"39","article-title":"Limb allometry in birds","volume":"17","author":"Olmos M","year":"1996","journal-title":"Ann Sci Nat Zool"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_84_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ympev.2005.07.007"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_85_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ympev.2007.11.020"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_86_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10635150701549672"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_87_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/sysbio\/syp079"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_88_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.205.21.3399"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_89_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/283367"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_90_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msn104"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_91_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7998.1985.tb05613.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_92_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.01473"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_93_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.zool.2007.01.003"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_94_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0911396107"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_95_1","volume-title":"Formulas for Stress and Strain","author":"Roark RJ","year":"1965"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_96_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12038-011-9157-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_97_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0706385105"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_98_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.101.1.187"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_99_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5193(84)80031-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_100_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.02235"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_101_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2148-7-224"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_102_1","volume-title":"CRC Handbook of Mammalian Body Masses","author":"Silva M","year":"1995"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_103_1","first-page":"University of P","article-title":"The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion","author":"Smithers RNH","year":"1983","journal-title":"Pretoria"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_104_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0334222100"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_105_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1096-3642.2006.00232.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_106_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/8756-3282(93)90081-K"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_107_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S8756-3282(01)00614-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_108_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1464793106007007"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_109_1","unstructured":"Wisconsin National Primate Research Centre.2011.Primate Info Net: Primate Factsheets. Available at:http:\/\/pin.primate.wisc.edu\/factsheets\/[Accessed 2011]."},{"key":"e_1_2_7_110_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1055-7903(03)00113-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_111_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msn160"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_112_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/03008200009005292"}],"container-title":["The Anatomical Record"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1002%2Far.22658","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/ar.22658","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T15:55:00Z","timestamp":1759938900000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/ar.22658"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,5]]},"references-count":111,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2013,3]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1002\/ar.22658"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ar.22658","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-8486","1932-8494"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-8486","type":"print"},{"value":"1932-8494","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,5]]}}}