{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T09:22:46Z","timestamp":1780564966234,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,15]],"date-time":"2016-11-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1479168000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["The Anatomical Record"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title><jats:p>We introduce a new method to geometrically reconstruct eye volume and placement in small\u2010bodied primates based on the three\u2010dimensional contour of the intraorbital surface. We validate it using seven species of living primates, with dry skulls and wet dissections, and test its application on seven species of Paleogene fossils of interest. The method performs well even when the orbit is damaged and incomplete, lacking the postorbital bar and represented only by the orbital floor. Eye volume is an important quantity for anatomic and metabolic reasons, which due to differences in eye set, or position within (or outside) the bony orbit, can be underestimated in living and fossil forms when calculated from aperture diameter. Our Ectopic Index quantifies how much the globe's volume protrudes anteriorly from the aperture. <jats:italic>Lemur<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>Notharctus<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Rooneyia<\/jats:italic> resemble anthropoids, with deeply recessed eyes protruding 11%\u201313%. <jats:italic>Galago<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Tarsius<\/jats:italic> are the other extreme, at 47%\u201356%. We argue that a laterally oriented aperture has little to do with line\u2010of\u2010sight in euprimates, as large ectopic eyes can position the cornea to enable a directly forward viewing axis, and soft tissue positions the eyes facing forward in megachiropteran bats, which have unenclosed, open eye sockets. The size and set of virtual eyes reconstructed from 3D cranial models confirm that eyes were large to hypertrophic in <jats:italic>Hemiacodon<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>Necrolemur<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>Microchoerus, Pseudoloris<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Shoshonius<\/jats:italic>, but eye size in <jats:italic>Rooneyia<\/jats:italic> may have been underestimated by measuring the aperture, as in <jats:italic>Aotus<\/jats:italic>. Anat Rec, 299:1671\u20131689, 2016. \u00a9 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/ar.23479","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,16]],"date-time":"2016-11-16T18:08:05Z","timestamp":1479319685000},"page":"1671-1689","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Eye Size and Set in Small\u2010Bodied Fossil Primates: A Three\u2010Dimensional Method"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"299","author":[{"given":"Alfred L.","family":"Rosenberger","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology and Archaeology Brooklyn College, City University of New York Brooklyn New York"},{"name":"New York Consortium in Evolutionary Primatology (NYCEP), Department of Anthropology The Graduate Center, City University of New York New York New York"},{"name":"Department of Mammalogy American Museum of Natural History New York New York"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tim D.","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Physical Therapy Slippery Rock University Slippery Rock Pennsylvania"},{"name":"Department of Anthropology University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh Pennsylvania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Valerie B.","family":"DeLeon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology University of Florida Gainesville Florida"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anne M.","family":"Burrows","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Therapy Duquesne University Pittsburgh Pennsylvania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert","family":"Schenck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth and Environmental Sciences CUNY Graduate Center New York New York"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lauren B.","family":"Halenar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology Farmingdale State College (SUNY) Farmingdale New York"},{"name":"New York Consortium in Evolutionary Primatology Morphometrics Group (NMG), City University of New York New York New York"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_8_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/349064a0"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5962\/bhl.title.54984"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_4_1","first-page":"97","volume-title":"The Functional and Evolutionary Biology of Primates","author":"Cartmill M.","year":"1972"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_5_1","volume-title":"Early forerunners of man","author":"Clark WEL.","year":"1934"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_6_1","volume-title":"The antecedents of man","author":"Clark WEL.","year":"1959"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_7_1","first-page":"71","article-title":"An anaptomorphus lemur","volume":"16","author":"Cope ED.","year":"1882","journal-title":"Am Nat"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ar.23028"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_9_1","volume-title":"Primate evolution and adaptation","author":"Fleagle JG.","year":"2016"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_10_1","volume-title":"Handbook of Paleoanthropology","author":"Godinot M.","year":"2014"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_11_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"The orders of mammals","volume":"27","author":"Gregory WK.","year":"1910","journal-title":"Bull Am Mus Nat Hist"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ar.23468"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jhev.2000.0447"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JonesFW.1916. Arboreal man. London: Edward Arnold.","DOI":"10.5962\/bhl.title.20078"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0047-2484(77)80040-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/1096-8644(200010)113:2<235::AID-AJPA7>3.0.CO;2-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ar.a.20115"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2006.02.004"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-8873-7_20"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.017574"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10764-010-9447-x"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4020-6997-0_14"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jhev.1995.1057"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2006.09.006"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330260138"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_26_1","first-page":"9","volume-title":"Tarsiers: Past, Present, New Brunswick and Future","author":"Simons EL","year":"2003"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ar.22648"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000155166"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_29_1","first-page":"187","article-title":"An interpretation of the sagittal shape of the skull of higher primates, based on observations of the skull of Tarsius","volume":"2","author":"Spatz WB.","year":"1969","journal-title":"Proc 2nd Int Cong Primatol"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000155027"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_31_1","volume-title":"Evolutionary history of the primates","author":"Szalay FS","year":"1979"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_32_1","first-page":"425","volume-title":"Pleistocene Extinctions: The Search for a Cause","author":"Walker A.","year":"1967"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_33_1","volume-title":"The vertebrate eye and its adaptive radiation","author":"Walls GL.","year":"1963"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_34_1","first-page":"133","article-title":"Studies of Eocene Mammalia in the marsh collection, Peabody museum. Part 2","volume":"4","author":"Wortman J.","year":"1903","journal-title":"Primates. Am J Sci Ser"}],"container-title":["The Anatomical Record"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1002%2Far.23479","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1002%2Far.23479","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/ar.23479","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T13:07:59Z","timestamp":1759928879000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/ar.23479"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,15]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,12]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1002\/ar.23479"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ar.23479","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-8486","1932-8494"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-8486","type":"print"},{"value":"1932-8494","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,15]]}}}