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Insight into the adaptive significance of features, particularly in the spine, has been gained through experimental studies that induce bipedal standing or walking in quadrupedal mammals. Using an experimental animal model (<jats:italic>Rattus norvegicus<\/jats:italic>), the present study builds on earlier work by incorporating additional metrics of the cranium, employing quantitative methods established in the paleoanthropological literature, and exploring how variation in mechanical loading regimes impacts axial anatomy. Rats were assigned to one of five experimental groups, including \u201cfully loaded bipedal walking,\u201d \u201cpartially loaded bipedal walking,\u201d \u201cstanding bipedally,\u201d \u201cquadrupedal walking,\u201d and \u201cno exercise control,\u201d and engaged in the behavior over 12\u2010weeks. From \u03bcCT data obtained at the beginning and end of the experiment, we measured foramen magnum position and orientation, lumbar vertebral body wedging, cranial surface area of the lumbar and first sacral vertebral bodies, and sacral mediolateral width. Results demonstrate that bipedal rodents generally have more anteriorly positioned foramina magna, more dorsally wedged lumbar vertebrae, greater articular surface areas of lumbar and first sacral vertebral bodies, and sacra that exhibit greater mediolateral widths, compared to quadrupedal rodents. We further document variation among bipedal loading behavior groups (e.g., bipedal standing vs. walking). Our experimental animal model reveals how loading behaviors and adaptations may be specifically linked, and implicates a potential role for developmental plasticity in the evolutionary acquisition of bipedal adaptations in the hominin lineage. Anat Rec, 2018. \u00a9 2018 American Association for Anatomy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/ar.24003","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,26]],"date-time":"2018-10-26T11:35:27Z","timestamp":1540553727000},"page":"150-166","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Response of the Axial Skeleton to Bipedal Loading Behaviors in an Experimental Animal Model"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"303","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2203-1831","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabrielle A.","family":"Russo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology Stony Brook University  Stony Brook New York"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"D'arcy","family":"Marsh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology Stony Brook University  Stony Brook New York"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1265-8171","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adam D.","family":"Foster","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy School of Osteopathic Medicine, Campbell University  Buies Creek North Carolina"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_7_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330720309"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330740107"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330800311"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1442-200X.1963.tb01095.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1442-200X.1964.tb01113.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_7_1","volume-title":"An introduction to human evolutionary anatomy","author":"Aiello LC","year":"2002"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00007632-200107150-00006"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2016.00106"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2017.04.014"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spinee.2013.07.464"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11999-009-1153-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_13_1","first-page":"64","article-title":"Lumbar lordosis of extinct hominins","volume":"147","author":"Been E","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ped Intl"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_14_1","first-page":"77","article-title":"Der Formwandel des Primatensch\u00e4dels und seine Beziehungen zur ontogenetischen Entwicklung und den phylogenetischen Spezialisationen der Kopforgane","volume":"98","author":"Biegert J","year":"1957","journal-title":"Gegenbaurs Morphol Jahrb"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_15_1","first-page":"116","volume-title":"Classification and human evolution","author":"Biegert J","year":"1963"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_16_1","first-page":"362","article-title":"On the position and displacement of the foramen magnum in the primates","volume":"12","author":"Bolk L","year":"1909","journal-title":"Verh Akad Wet Amst"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature03052"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_18_1","first-page":"649","article-title":"Sur la direction du trou occipital. 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