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Three\u2010dimensional morphological analysis of well\u2010preserved stem\u2010reptile specimens can reveal important anatomical data and clarify regions of phylogeny. Here, we present the first thorough description of the unusual early Permian stem reptile\n                    <jats:italic>Bolosaurus major<\/jats:italic>\n                    , including the first comprehensive description of a bolosaurid braincase. We describe previously obscured details of the palate, allowing for insight into bolosaurid feeding mechanics. Aspects of the rostrum, palate, mandible, and neurocranium suggest that\n                    <jats:italic>B. major<\/jats:italic>\n                    had a particularly strong bite. We additionally found\n                    <jats:italic>B. major<\/jats:italic>\n                    has a surprisingly slender stapes, similar to that of the middle Permian stem reptile\n                    <jats:italic>Macroleter poezicus<\/jats:italic>\n                    , which may suggest enhanced hearing abilities compared to other Paleozoic amniotes (e.g., captorhinids). We incorporated our new anatomical information into a large phylogenetic matrix (150 OTUs, 590 characters) to explore the relationship of Bolosauridae among stem reptiles. Our analyses generally recovered a paraphyletic \u201cParareptilia,\u201d and found Bolosauridae to diverge after Captorhinidae\u2009+\u2009Araeoscelidia. We also included\n                    <jats:italic>B. major<\/jats:italic>\n                    within a smaller matrix (10 OTUs, 27 characters) designed to explore the interrelationships of Bolosauridae and found all species of\n                    <jats:italic>Bolosaurus<\/jats:italic>\n                    to be monophyletic. While reptile relationships still require further investigation, our phylogeny suggests repeated evolution of impedance\u2010matching ears in Paleozoic stem reptiles.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/ar.25546","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,29]],"date-time":"2024-07-29T01:36:01Z","timestamp":1722216961000},"page":"930-961","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Cranial anatomy and phylogenetic affinities of\n                    <scp>\n                      <i>Bolosaurus major<\/i>\n                    <\/scp>\n                    , with new information on the unique bolosaurid feeding apparatus and evolution of the impedance\u2010matching ear"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"309","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6345-6553","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kelsey M.","family":"Jenkins","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Yale University  New Haven Connecticut USA"},{"name":"Yale Peabody Museum  New Haven Connecticut USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7398-2143","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"William","family":"Foster","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Functional Anatomy and Evolution, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine  Baltimore Maryland USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0935-234X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James G.","family":"Napoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Paleontology North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences  Raleigh North Carolina USA"},{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences North Carolina State University  Raleigh North Carolina USA"},{"name":"Division of Paleontology American Museum of Natural History  New York New York USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0050-6354","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dalton L.","family":"Meyer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Yale University  New Haven Connecticut USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8590-584X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriel S.","family":"Bever","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Functional Anatomy and Evolution, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine  Baltimore Maryland USA"},{"name":"Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Johns Hopkins University  Baltimore Maryland USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0838-8068","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bhart\u2010Anjan S.","family":"Bhullar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Yale University  New Haven Connecticut USA"},{"name":"Yale Peabody Museum  New Haven Connecticut USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_9_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/brv.12546"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fevo.2022.841784"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/dvdy.24338"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jmor.1051470404"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4612-2784-7_37"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_7_1","first-page":"275","article-title":"Sound conduction in the fossil anomodont Lystrosaurus","volume":"50","author":"Barry T. 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