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The study of modularity and integration provides new insights into the evolution of complex structures such as the vertebral column. Patterns of modularity and integration may reflect underlying genetic\u2010developmental patterns and facilitate evolution. Previous studies have identified mixed modularity patterns within and between elements across mammals generally, within primates and carnivorans. Here, we assess modularity within and between elements in the complete post\u2010axial vertebral column in four catarrhine taxa:\n                    <jats:italic>Macaca<\/jats:italic>\n                    (\n                    <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u200996),\n                    <jats:italic>Hylobates<\/jats:italic>\n                    (\n                    <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u200977),\n                    <jats:italic>Pan<\/jats:italic>\n                    (\n                    <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u200992), and\n                    <jats:italic>Homo<\/jats:italic>\n                    (\n                    <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u2009151). We use the Covariance Ratio (CR) to estimate\n                    <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:sup>\n                      <jats:italic>2<\/jats:italic>\n                    <\/jats:sup>\n                    and the standardized eigenvalues (SVE) variance for comparative purposes. Our results show that there is general, widespread integration within the catarrhine vertebral column, both within and between elements. Hominoids tend to display greater modularity than do macaques, but these estimates are rarely significant. Clusters of modularity in the mid\u2010cervical and upper thoracic regions may relate to special nervous system structures in these areas, and locomotor behaviors in general may influence patterns of modularity in primates. In particular, we find that size is a pervasive factor affecting integration among vertebral elements, though its effects on specific structures are variable. Our results generally do not agree with those found across mammals or within carnivorans, and future studies should focus on genus\u2010level assessments across a variety of taxa.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/ar.25653","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,14]],"date-time":"2025-03-14T04:55:11Z","timestamp":1741928111000},"page":"105-129","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Modularity and integration of the neural arch and vertebral centrum in primates"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"309","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8115-0112","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Catalina I.","family":"Villamil","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Primate Morphology, Caribbean Primate Research Center University of Puerto Rico\u2010Medical Sciences Campus  San Juan Puerto Rico USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Emily R.","family":"Middleton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology University of Wisconsin\u2010Milwaukee  Milwaukee Wisconsin USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_11_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.12511"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_3_1","unstructured":"Adams D. 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