{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]],"date-time":"2026-09-07T15:11:09Z","timestamp":1788793869175,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":94,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]],"date-time":"2025-12-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766102400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]],"date-time":"2025-12-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766102400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["The Anatomical Record"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Last year, we challenged the view that large\u2010bodied theropod dinosaurs such as\n                    <jats:italic>Tyrannosaurus rex<\/jats:italic>\n                    resembled primates in cognition and behavior, a proposition made by Herculano\u2010Houzel in 2023. More recently, Jensen et al. have criticized our work on this topic, raising methodological and conceptual issues. Central to their argument is the assumption that tachymetabolic endotherms should be expected to converge in neurocognitive traits, which follows the recently proposed endothermic brain hypothesis. We here respond to their critique, address critical misconceptions, and argue that none of the points raised by Jensen et al. challenge the conclusions we have drawn. We show that the endothermic brain hypothesis lacks robust support from the fossil record. As of now, no compelling evidence suggests that endothermy coevolved with enlarged brains or elevated neuron densities in either the avian or mammalian lineage. Various fossil groups containing endothermic taxa retain plesiomorphic endocast traits and do not converge with birds and mammals in the relative size and proportions of their brains. Furthermore, we elaborate on our discussion on (forebrain) neuron counts as correlates of cognitive performance and highlight that neuron numbers evolve in tandem with body mass in birds and mammals, suggesting that comparatively high neuron number estimates for some Mesozoic dinosaurs do not require explanations that orbit around exceptional cognitive abilities. Despite these disagreements, we identify significant overlap in opinion between Jensen et al. and ourselves, including in the position that neuron count estimates for Mesozoic dinosaurs will remain unreliable and are unsuitable for inferring cognitive complexity.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/ar.70113","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]],"date-time":"2025-12-19T14:59:27Z","timestamp":1766156367000},"page":"2560-2573","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Endothermy, neuron counts, and other issues: Further remarks on neurocognitive evolution in fossil vertebrates"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"309","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2112-1050","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kai R.","family":"Caspar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Cell Biology Heinrich Heine University D\u00fcsseldorf  D\u00fcsseldorf Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0468-8223","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristi\u00e1n","family":"Guti\u00e9rrez\u2010Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences University of Alberta  Edmonton Alberta Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-6700-195X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hady","family":"George","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Earth Sciences University of Bristol  Bristol UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2906-4900","authenticated-orcid":false,"suffix":"Jr.","given":"Thomas R.","family":"Holtz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geology University of Maryland  College Park Maryland USA"},{"name":"Department of Paleobiology National Museum of Natural History  Washington, DC USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0952-4471","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Darren","family":"Naish","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Environment and Life Sciences University of Southampton  Southampton UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Grant R.","family":"Hurlburt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Natural History Royal Ontario Museum  Toronto Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_11_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2016.0511"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/joa.12692"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02724634.2019.1595636"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/spp2.1285"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.adh3428"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.70089"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000532013"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2024.0255"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rsbl.2025.0126"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2019.05.044"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02724634.2014.991021"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_13_1","volume-title":"Dinosaur behavior: An illustrated guide","author":"Benton M. J.","year":"2023"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-7692.2000.tb00939.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/jpa.2025.10121"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1096-3642.2009.00601.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1671\/0272-4634(2000)020[0705:GPDFTB]2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/jj.6047951.19"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_19_1","first-page":"191","volume-title":"The complete dinosaur","author":"Buchholtz E.","year":"2012"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-27223-4_12"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ar.25459"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2024.04.051"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.2311"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnana.2022.1048261"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0298242"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aax9361"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000085048"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-14335-y"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2024.105928"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-023-05663-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ar.25609"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-443-27380-3.00022-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.4955"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-86012-7_7"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/per.2217"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/zoolinnean\/zlae065"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12862-018-1312-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1071\/9781486300679"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/brv.12822"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2017.03.003"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2017.02.004"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.25453"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000437413"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1558-5646.1994.tb01308.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_45_1","volume-title":"Uncovering dinosaur behavior: What they did and how we know","author":"Hone D.","year":"2024"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_46_1","first-page":"39","volume-title":"Biology of the Reptilia","author":"Hopson J. A.","year":"1979"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0095637"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_48_1","unstructured":"Hurlburt G. R.(1996).Relative brain size in recent and fossil amniotes: Determination and interpretation[PhD thesis University of Toronto]."},{"key":"e_1_2_11_49_1","first-page":"134","volume-title":"Tyrannosaurid Paleobiology","author":"Hurlburt G. R.","year":"2013"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.21105\/joss.01028"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-4-431-56559-8_5"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ar.70074"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-023-01794-x"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.25597"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000545417"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.3001529"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2121624119"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jmor.20712"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jmor.21621"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_60_1","first-page":"19","volume-title":"Mesozoic vertebrate life","author":"Larsson H. C. E.","year":"2001"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1671\/0272-4634(2000)020[0615:FEANTD]2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2020.e05265"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000076784"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/sysbio\/syw033"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/pab.2022.38"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12983-021-00431-y"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2024.10.009"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2025.08.010"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-13447-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.3003394"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/pala.12174"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/evo.13805"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_73_1","unstructured":"Morhardt A. C.(2016).Gross anatomical brain region approximation (GABRA): Assessing brain size structure and evolution in extinct archosaurs[PhD thesis Ohio University]."},{"key":"e_1_2_11_74_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2020.135202"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_75_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/biolinnean\/blw044"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2024.08.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-13983-3_8"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0007783"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anbehav.2016.06.023"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.28589"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_81_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0185(19991015)257:5<162::AID-AR5>3.0.CO;2-W"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_82_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1671\/0272-4634(2007)27[32:CAOMCT]2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_83_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/pab.2025.2"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_84_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/jj.6047951.20"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_85_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41559-022-01815-x"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_86_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2506145122"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_87_1","first-page":"109","article-title":"The palaeohistology of pterosaur bone: An overview","volume":"28","author":"Steel L.","year":"2008","journal-title":"Zitteliana"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_88_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/brv.12658"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_89_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2024.0124"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_90_1","first-page":"179","volume-title":"Paleoneurology of amniotes: New directions in the study of fossil endocasts","author":"Baczko M. B.","year":"2022"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_91_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.70056"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_92_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-04770-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_93_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2024.0129"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_94_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02048"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_95_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0016756820001351"}],"container-title":["The Anatomical Record"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/ar.70113","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1002\/ar.70113","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/ar.70113","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]],"date-time":"2026-09-07T14:56:24Z","timestamp":1788792984000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/ar.70113"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]]},"references-count":94,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1002\/ar.70113"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ar.70113","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-8486","1932-8494"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-8486","type":"print"},{"value":"1932-8494","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2025-10-19","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-12-08","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-12-19","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}