{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T04:30:39Z","timestamp":1792643439806,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]],"date-time":"2025-09-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757030400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":4,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Birth Defects Research"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title><jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Traditional observational studies suggest that socioeconomic status (<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">SES<\/jats:styled-content>) may influence the risk of congenital anomalies; however, an association remains unclear due to residual confounding. This study used Mendelian randomization (<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">MR<\/jats:styled-content>) to explore the potential causal relationship between <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">SES<\/jats:styled-content> indicators and specific congenital anomalies.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>We performed two\u2010sample <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">MR<\/jats:styled-content> analyses to explore whether three indicators of <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">SES<\/jats:styled-content>\u2014educational attainment, household income, and the Townsend Deprivation Index\u2014have a relationship with the risk of major congenital anomalies. Genetic variants associated with these <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">SES<\/jats:styled-content> indicators were obtained from the <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">MRC<\/jats:styled-content> Integrative Epidemiology Unit (<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">IEU<\/jats:styled-content>) <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">OpenGWAS<\/jats:styled-content> database, based on <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">UK<\/jats:styled-content> Biobank data. Genetic associations with nine categories of congenital anomalies were sourced from the <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">FinnGen<\/jats:styled-content> study. The primary <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">MR<\/jats:styled-content> method was inverse\u2010variance weighted (<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">IVW<\/jats:styled-content>), with sensitivity analyses and Bonferroni correction applied to account for multiple testing.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Prior to correction for multiple testing, higher educational attainment was associated with reduced risk of congenital heart defects (CHDs) (<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">OR<\/jats:styled-content>\u2009=\u20090.60, 95% <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">CI<\/jats:styled-content>: 0.41\u20130.88; <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20090.001), congenital respiratory system malformations (<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">OR<\/jats:styled-content>\u2009=\u20090.20, 95% <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">CI<\/jats:styled-content>: 0.06\u20130.62; <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20090.005), and musculoskeletal malformations (<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">OR<\/jats:styled-content>\u2009=\u20090.47, 95% <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">CI<\/jats:styled-content>: 0.29\u20130.76; <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20090.002). A lower Townsend Deprivation Index was unexpectedly associated with a higher risk of congenital digestive tract anomalies (<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">OR<\/jats:styled-content>\u2009=\u20094.53, 95% <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">CI<\/jats:styled-content>: 1.10\u201318.63; <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20090.036). However, after Bonferroni correction, only the association between educational attainment and CHDs remained significant (adjusted <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20090.02).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>We found limited evidence on the association between SES and congenital anomalies. Only higher educational attainment was significantly associated with reduced risk of CHDs after multiple testing correction. Further research with refined methods is needed to clarify these associations.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/bdr2.2524","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]],"date-time":"2025-09-05T12:01:32Z","timestamp":1757073692000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Association Between Socioeconomic Status and Major Congenital Anomalies: A Two\u2010Sample Mendelian Randomization Study"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"117","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0560-1548","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel","family":"Linares","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Genetics Institute Universidad Mayor de San Andres  La Paz La Paz Bolivia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qun","family":"Miao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cheo  Ottawa ON Canada"},{"name":"CHEO Research Institute  Ottawa ON Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Beatriz","family":"Luna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Genetics Institute Universidad Mayor de San Andres  La Paz La Paz Bolivia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_9_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562\u2010025\u201002150\u20104"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/bdra.22857"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19138079"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2024.102873"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.19191\/EP18.3\u20104.S1.P001.057"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCOUTCOMES.119.005623"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00592\u2010014\u20100668\u2010x"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0021932017000062"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healthpol.2015.07.004"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0159039"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elsworth B. 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