{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T16:15:41Z","timestamp":1790266541873,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,20]],"date-time":"2025-08-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755648000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Bioelectromagnetics"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    This study assesses the exposure to 5G radio frequency electromagnetic fields (RF EMF) across four European countries. Spot measurements were conducted indoor and outdoor in both public spaces and educational institutions, encompassing urban and rural environments. In total, 146 measurements were performed in 2023, divided over Belgium (47), Switzerland (38), Hungary (30) and Poland (31). At 34.9% of all measurement locations a 5G connection to 3.6\u2009GHz was established. The average cumulative incident power density (\n                    <jats:italic>S<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:sub>avg<\/jats:sub>\n                    ) and maximum cumulative incident power density (\n                    <jats:italic>S<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:sub>max<\/jats:sub>\n                    ) were determined, for both \u201cbackground\u201d exposure (no 5G user equipment; No UE) and worst\u2010case exposure (maximum downlink with 5G user equipment; Max DL). Furthermore, 3.6\u2009GHz 5G\u2010specific average\n                    <jats:italic>S<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:sub>avg,5G<\/jats:sub>\n                    and maximum\n                    <jats:italic>S<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:sub>max,<\/jats:sub>\n                    <jats:sub>5G<\/jats:sub>\n                    incident power density are considered as well. For the No UE scenario, the highest\n                    <jats:italic>S<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:sub>max<\/jats:sub>\n                    is 17.6\u2009mW\/m\n                    <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                    , while for the Max DL, the highest\n                    <jats:italic>S<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:sub>max<\/jats:sub>\n                    is 23.3\u2009mW\/m\n                    <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                    . Both values are well within the ICNIRP guidelines. The highest\n                    <jats:italic>S<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:sub>max,<\/jats:sub>\n                    <jats:sub>5G<\/jats:sub>\n                    measured over all countries and scenarios was 10.4\u2009mW\/m\n                    <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                    , which is 3.2% of the frequency\u2010specific ICNIRP guidelines. Additionally, a comparison was made between big cities, secondary cities, and villages for all four countries. The ratio of power density measured in rural areas was significantly lower than in urban areas (\u22124.8 to \u221210.4\u2009dB). Under LOS conditions, the average incident power density was 2.3\u2009mW\/m\n                    <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                    , whereas under NLOS conditions, the average incident power density decreases to 0.9\u2009mW\/m\n                    <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                    . Furthermore, the relative variation increases under NLOS scenarios. Lastly, an analysis was performed regarding the power density in educational institutions compared to all other measurement locations, both indoors and outdoors for the different city types. The measured incident power density is not extensively lower in or around schools compared to public places, neither in the big cities, secondary cities, or the villages.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/bem.70019","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,20]],"date-time":"2025-08-20T08:23:47Z","timestamp":1755678227000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["5G RF EMF Spectral Exposure Assessment in Four European Countries"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"46","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1954-6738","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kenneth","family":"Deprez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Ghent University \u2010 imec, waves Ghent Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bram","family":"Stroobandt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ghent University \u2010 imec, waves Ghent Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adriana Fernandes","family":"Veludo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute (Swiss TPH) Allschwil Switzerland"},{"name":"University of Basel Basel Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zsuzsanna","family":"Vecsei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Public Health and Pharmacy Budapest Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter Pal","family":"Necz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Public Health and Pharmacy Budapest Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Piotr","family":"Polita\u0144ski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine Lodz Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Leen","family":"Verloock","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ghent University \u2010 imec, waves Ghent Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kinga","family":"Polanska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine Lodz Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gy\u00f6rgy","family":"Thur\u00f3czy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Public Health and Pharmacy Budapest Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"R\u00f6\u00f6sli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute (Swiss TPH) Allschwil Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Plets","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ghent University \u2010 imec, waves Ghent Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8807-0673","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wout","family":"Joseph","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ghent University \u2010 imec, waves Ghent Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_8_2_1","unstructured":"3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP). 3GPP. Technical Specifications (TS) series 38 2025: 5G NR (New Radio) Specifications.https:\/\/www.3gpp.org\/dynareport?code=38-series.html."},{"key":"e_1_2_8_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2961225"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/app11083592"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s22051715"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_6_1","unstructured":"Belgisch Staatsblad M.2022. Belgisch Staatsblad M. Besluit van de Vlaamse Regering tot wijziging van het besluit van de Vlaamse Regering van 1 juni 1995 houdende algemene en sectorale bepalingen inzake milieuhygi\u00ebne en het besluit van de Vlaamse Regering van 12 december 2008 tot uitvoering van titel XVI van het decreet van 5 april 1995 houdende algemene bepalingen inzake milieubeleid wat betreft vast en tijdelijk opgestelde zendan\u2010 tennes voor elektromagnetische golven tussen 100 kHz en 300 GHz.http:\/\/www.emis.vito.be."},{"key":"e_1_2_8_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13246-022-01146-y"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3353693"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_9_1","unstructured":"Brussels Capital Region.2023. \u201cBrussels Capital Region Ordinance Concerning Protection Against Non\u2010ionising Radiation of 4 April 2023.\u201d Belgian Official Gazette.https:\/\/www.ejustice.just.fgov.be\/cgi\/article.pl?language=nl&numac=2023042811."},{"key":"e_1_2_8_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/OJCOMS.2021.3106052"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/rpd\/ncac061"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s23063312"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2018.01.011"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/jes.2013.40"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TEMC.2021.3109249"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_16_1","unstructured":"IEEE.2019. \u201cIEEE Standard for Safety Levels With Respect to Human Exposure to Electric Magnetic and Electromagnetic Fields 0 Hz to 300 GHz.\u201d InIEEE Std C95.1\u20102019 (Revision of IEEE Std C95.1\u20102005\/Incorporates IEEE Std C95.1\u20102019\/Cor 1\u20102019) 1\u2013312. IEEE."},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_2_8_17_1","first-page":"494","article-title":"International Commission on Non\u2010Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) Guidelines for Limiting Exposure to Electromagnetic Fields (100 kHz to 300 GHz)","volume":"74","author":"ICNIRP","year":"1998","journal-title":"Health Physics"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/HP.0000000000001210"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_19_1","unstructured":"IEC.2022. \u201cDetermination of RF Field Strength Power Density and SAR in the Vicinity of Radiocommunication Base Stations for the Purpose of Evaluating Human Exposure\u201d (EN IEC 62232:2022). 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