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Additionally, there is little examination of rTMS adverse effects particularly with regards to visual and cognitive function. Neural plasticity is key in rehabilitation and recovery of function; thus, effective therapeutic strategies must be capable of modulating plasticity. Glutamate and \u03b3\u2010aminobutyric acid (GABA)\u2010mediated changes in the balance between excitation and inhibition are prominent features in visual cortical plasticity.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives and method<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We investigated the effects of low\u2010frequency (1 Hz) rTMS to the visual cortex on levels of neurotransmitters GABA and glutamate to determine the therapeutic potential of 1 Hz rTMS for visual\u2010related disorders. Two rTMS regimes commonly used in clinical applications were investigated: participants received rTMS to the visual cortex either in a single 20\u2010min session or five accelerated 20\u2010min sessions (not previously investigated at the visual cortex). Proton (1H) magnetic resonance spectroscopy for in vivo quantification of GABA (assessed via GABA+) and glutamate (assessed via Glx) concentrations was performed pre\u2010 and post\u2010rTMS.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>GABA+ and Glx concentrations were unaltered following a single session of rTMS to the visual cortex. One day of accelerated rTMS significantly reduced GABA+ concentration for up to 24 hr, with levels returning to baseline by 1\u2010week post\u2010rTMS. Basic visual and cognitive function remained largely unchanged.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Accelerated 1 Hz rTMS to the visual cortex has greater potential for approaches targeting plasticity or in cases with altered GABAergic responses in visual disorders. Notably, these results provide preliminary insight into a critical window of plasticity with accelerated rTMS (e.g., 24 hr) in which adjunct therapies may offer better functional outcome. We describe detailed procedures to enable further exploration of these protocols.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.1845","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,23]],"date-time":"2020-09-23T04:34:07Z","timestamp":1600835647000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Assessing differential effects of single and accelerated low\u2010frequency rTMS to the visual cortex on GABA and glutamate concentrations"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3636-4001","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sara A.","family":"Rafique","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology and Centre for Vision Research York University Toronto ON Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7487-4646","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jennifer K. 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