{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T19:15:42Z","timestamp":1785352542781,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,7]],"date-time":"2023-05-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1683417600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Brain and Behavior"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Prior research has demonstrated that personality disorders and clinical psychiatric syndromes are common among users of anabolic\u2013androgenic steroids (AAS). However, the prevalence, expression, and severity of psychopathology differ among AAS users and remain poorly understood. In this study, we examine the existence of potential clinically coherent psychopathology subgroups, using cluster procedures.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A sample of 118 male AAS users and 97 weightlifting nonusers was assessed using the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory\u2010III (MCMI\u2010III), measuring personality disorders and clinical syndromes. Group differences in MCMI\u2010III scales were assessed using Wilcoxon\u2010Mann\u2013Whitney tests and Fisher's exact test. Agglomerative hierarchical clustering was used to identify clusters based on MCMI\u2010III scale scores from the whole sample.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>AAS users displayed significantly higher scores on all personality disorder (except narcissistic) and clinical syndrome scales compared to nonusing weightlifters. The clustering analysis found four separate clusters with different levels and patterns of psychopathology. The \u201cno psychopathology\u201d cluster was most common among nonusing weightlifters, while the three other clusters were more common among AAS users: \u201csevere multipathology,\u201d \u201clow multipathology,\u201d and \u201cmild externalizing.\u201d The \u201csevere multipathology\u201d cluster was found almost exclusively among AAS users. AAS users also displayed the highest scores on drug and alcohol dependence syndromes.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>AAS users in our sample demonstrated greater psychopathology than the nonusing weightlifters, with many exhibiting multipathology. This may pose a significant challenge to clinical care for AAS users, particularly as there appears to be significant variation in psychopathology in this population. Individual psychiatric profiles should be taken into consideration when providing treatment to this group.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Significant Outcomes<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\">\n                        <jats:list-item>\n                          <jats:p>As a group, AAS users displayed markedly greater psychopathology than nonusing weightlifters.<\/jats:p>\n                        <\/jats:list-item>\n                        <jats:list-item>\n                          <jats:p>Multipathology was common among AAS users.<\/jats:p>\n                        <\/jats:list-item>\n                        <jats:list-item>\n                          <jats:p>Four different subgroups of personality profiles were identified with distinct patterns of pathology and severity.<\/jats:p>\n                        <\/jats:list-item>\n                      <\/jats:list>\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Limitations<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\">\n                        <jats:list-item>\n                          <jats:p>The cross\u2010sectional nature of the study precludes inferences about causality.<\/jats:p>\n                        <\/jats:list-item>\n                        <jats:list-item>\n                          <jats:p>The study is limited by possible selection bias, as participants choosing to be involved in research may not be entirely representative for the group as a whole.<\/jats:p>\n                        <\/jats:list-item>\n                        <jats:list-item>\n                          <jats:p>The study is vulnerable to information bias, as the results are based on self\u2010report measures and interviews.<\/jats:p>\n                        <\/jats:list-item>\n                      <\/jats:list>\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.3040","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,7]],"date-time":"2023-05-07T23:33:41Z","timestamp":1683502421000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Clustering psychopathology in male anabolic\u2013androgenic steroid users and nonusing weightlifters"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0523-4650","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marie Lindvik","family":"J\u00f8rstad","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Anabolic Androgenic Steroid Research Group, National Advisory Unit on SUD Treatment, Division of Mental Health and Addiction Oslo University Hospital  Oslo 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