{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,26]],"date-time":"2026-02-26T15:00:51Z","timestamp":1772118051170,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,11]],"date-time":"2024-07-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1720656000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":10,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["32300913"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32300913"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Brain and Behavior"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Research has shown that visual perceptual learning (VPL) is related to modifying neural activity in higher level decision\u2010making regions. However, the causal roles of the prefrontal and visual cortexes in VPL are still unclear. Here, we investigated how anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) of the prefrontal and visual cortices modulates VPL in the early and later phases and the role of multiple brain regions.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Perceptual learning on the coherent motion direction identification task included early and later stages. After early training, participants needed to continuously train to reach a plateau; once the plateau was reached, participants entered a later stage. Sixty participants were randomly divided into five groups. Regardless of the training at the early and later stages, four groups received multitarget tDCS over the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (rDLPFC) and right middle temporal area (rMT), single\u2010target tDCS over the rDLPFC, and single\u2010target tDCS over the rMT or sham stimulation, and one group was stimulated at the ipsilateral brain region (i.e., left MT).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Compared with sham stimulation, multitarget and two single\u2010target tDCS over the rDLPFC or rMT improved posttest performance and accelerated learning during the early period. However, multitarget tDCS and two single\u2010target tDCS led to equivalent benefits for VPL. Additionally, these beneficial effects were absent when anodal tDCS was applied to the ipsilateral brain region. For the later period, the above facilitating effects on VPL induced by multitarget or single\u2010target tDCS disappeared.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study suggested the causal role of the prefrontal and visual cortices in visual motion perceptual learning by anodal tDCS but failed to find greater beneficial effects by simultaneously stimulating the prefrontal and visual cortices. Future research should investigate the functional associations between multiple brain regions to further promote VPL.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.3620","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,11]],"date-time":"2024-07-11T08:24:53Z","timestamp":1720686293000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Transcranial direct current stimulation of the prefrontal and visual cortices diversely affects early and late perceptual learning"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0749-3392","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Di","family":"Wu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Psychology Air Force Medical University  Xi'an Shaanxi China"},{"name":"Department of Neurobiology Basic Medical School Air Force Medical University  Xi'an Shaanxi 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