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However, its underlying molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood. This study investigates the role of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR\u20102) in mediating the therapeutic effects of rTMS in a mouse model of simulated space composite environment (SSCE).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Method<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>10 Hz rTMS treatment was initiated after the last two weeks of SSCE exposure and continued for the remaining 2 weeks. Throughout the rTMS treatment period, the VEGF receptor antagonist SU5416 was co\u2010administered via intraperitoneal injection.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Finding<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Behavioral tests revealed that VEGFR\u20102 inhibition abolished the beneficial effects of rTMS on depressive\u2010 and anxiety\u2010like behaviors, as measured by the tail suspension, forced swim, sucrose preference, and elevated plus maze tests. Furthermore, SU5416 blocked rTMS\u2010induced improvement in social skills. At the cellular level, VEGFR\u20102 antagonism impaired axonal integrity in the prefrontal cortex.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>These findings suggest that VEGFR\u20102 signaling is critical for the neuroprotective and behavioral benefits of rTMS under simulated spaceflight conditions, highlighting its potential as a therapeutic target for emotional regulation in extreme environments.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.71799","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T05:44:01Z","timestamp":1790660641000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["RTMS Mitigates Simulated Spaceflight\u2010Induced Emotional Dysfunction Through VEGFR\u20102\u2010Mediated Neuroprotection"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1656-5941","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rong","family":"Liang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical School, Faculty of Medicine Tianjin University  Tianjin China"},{"name":"Haihe Laboratory of Brain\u2010Computer Interaction and Human\u2010Machine Integration  Tianjin China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qing","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical School, Faculty of Medicine Tianjin University  Tianjin China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jing","family":"Ren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical School, Faculty of Medicine Tianjin University  Tianjin China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ling","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical School, Faculty of Medicine Tianjin University  Tianjin China"},{"name":"Haihe Laboratory of Brain\u2010Computer Interaction and Human\u2010Machine Integration  Tianjin China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xinyan","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical School, Faculty of Medicine Tianjin University  Tianjin China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fei","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical School, Faculty of Medicine Tianjin University  Tianjin China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jing","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tianjin Medical University General Hospital  Tianjin China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiajia","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical School, Faculty of Medicine Tianjin University  Tianjin China"},{"name":"Haihe Laboratory of Brain\u2010Computer Interaction and Human\u2010Machine Integration  Tianjin China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Advanced Medical Materials and Devices Tianjin University  Tianjin China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dong","family":"Ming","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical School, Faculty of Medicine Tianjin University  Tianjin China"},{"name":"Haihe Laboratory of Brain\u2010Computer Interaction and Human\u2010Machine Integration  Tianjin China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Advanced Medical Materials and Devices Tianjin University  Tianjin China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_2_12_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1080\/19390211.2021.1988797","article-title":"Lycopene and Chrysin Through Mitigation of Neuroinflammation and Oxidative Stress Exerted Antidepressant Effects in Clonidine\u2010Induced Depression\u2010Like Behavior in Rats","volume":"20","author":"Abd Al Haleem E. 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