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On the one hand, they contribute substantially to biodiversity and support ecosystem stability by performing essential ecological functions. On the other, they can impose health burdens on their hosts, causing diseases in both animals and humans. Despite their significance, our understanding of how parasitic organisms are affected by human\u2010driven environmental change remains poor. In other well\u2010studied groups such as free\u2010living birds, mammals and insects, long\u2010term ecological data sets have been instrumental in elucidating temporal trends in abundance or diversity and linking them to anthropogenic drivers. For parasites however, overarching long\u2010term trends in infection levels or diversity have yet to be identified. Here we provide an overview of the research approaches developed to study long\u2010term changes in parasite systems and the trends highlighted by these studies. Our aims were to help researchers make informed methodological decisions when designing their research, and to provide recommendations for future long\u2010term research on parasite ecology. To this end, we performed a systematic literature search on long\u2010term analyses of eukaryotic parasites of wild animals and identified four types of approaches deployed to gather long\u2010term data: (\n                    <jats:italic>i<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) long\u2010term monitoring; (\n                    <jats:italic>ii<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) snapshot resampling; (\n                    <jats:italic>iii<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) literature\u2010based research; and (\n                    <jats:italic>iv<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) natural history collection\u2010based studies. Our results revealed striking differences in the temporal scope, geographical scale of sampling, sample sizes and taxonomic resolution of parasite identification among these approaches. However, no overarching trends in parasite infection levels or diversity were identified. When detected, significant temporal changes were often linked to anthropogenic disturbances, but these claims were rarely supported by inferential analyses. Overall, our results show that our understanding of long\u2010term trends in parasite systems remains hampered by data scarcity and research biases. To address these issues, we advocate for the establishment of large\u2010scale parasite monitoring programmes combined with existing ecological monitoring projects, as well as the development of new scalable biomonitoring tools. We also highlight the importance of valorising historical data and preserved biological material in museum collections to obtain baseline information on parasite systems.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/brv.70119","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]],"date-time":"2025-12-19T11:53:00Z","timestamp":1766145180000},"page":"1120-1142","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Long\u2010term trends in parasite diversity and infection levels: approaches and patterns"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"101","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5367-1404","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cyril","family":"Hammoud","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Coastal Systems Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research  PO Box 59 Den Burg 1790AB The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4006-1353","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan Antonio","family":"Balbuena","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cavanilles Institute of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, University of Valencia  PO Box 22085 Valencia 46071 Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isabel","family":"Blasco\u2010Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Invertebrates Natural History Museum of Geneva  PO Box 6434 Geneva 1211 Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katie","family":"O'Dwyer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Marine and Freshwater Research Centre, Atlantic Technological University  Galway H91 T8NW Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rachel A.","family":"Paterson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Norwegian Institute for Nature Research  PO Box 5685 Trondheim 7485 Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tom\u00e1\u0161","family":"Scholz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences  \u010cesk\u00e9 Bud\u011bjovice 37005 Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christian","family":"Selbach","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Arctic and Marine Biology UiT \u2013 The Arctic University of Norway  Troms\u00f8 9037 Norway"},{"name":"Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management North\u2010West University  Potchefstroom 2520 South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bernd","family":"Sures","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management North\u2010West University  Potchefstroom 2520 South Africa"},{"name":"Aquatic Ecology and Centre for Water and Environmental Research, University of Duisburg\u2010Essen  Universit\u00e4tsstra\u00dfe 5 Essen D\u201045141 Germany"},{"name":"Research Center One Health Ruhr, Research Alliance Ruhr, University Duisburg\u2010Essen  Universit\u00e4tsstra\u00dfe 5 Essen D\u201045141 Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David W.","family":"Thieltges","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Coastal Systems Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research  PO Box 59 Den Burg 1790AB The Netherlands"},{"name":"Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life\u2010Sciences (GELIFES) University of Groningen  Groningen AG 9747 The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_8_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3354\/dao032071"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2011.10.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-016-1471-z"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2311.2000.00246.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1095-8649.1997.tb01542.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3147\/jsfp.36.27"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2010.05.018"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3354\/dao056223"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00248-014-0390-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1645\/13-287.1"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_13_1","first-page":"39","article-title":"Some observations on spatial and temporal variation in prevalence of infection of Bonamia ostreae (Pichot et al, 1980) in the native flat oyster Ostrea edulis (L.) in Galway Bay, Ireland","volume":"18","author":"Beare W. 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