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Female extra\u2010pair paternity is not supported by classic models of sexual selection yet is common across birds. Researchers recognise that variation in extra\u2010pair paternity, both within and between species, is in part driven by the costs to the individual; however, empirical studies tend to focus on benefits. This is because benefits are often measured through direct fitness measurements, whereas costs have more complex, indirect pathways to fitness. However, both the prevalence and magnitude of a cost are experienced in the context of an individual's environment and may affect fitness, either directly (by affecting reproduction or survival) or indirectly (through the fitness of offspring). Here, we review our current understanding of costs associated with extra\u2010pair paternity and extra\u2010pair copulation. For example, we review both the costs of producing extra\u2010pair offspring and the behaviour associated with extra\u2010pair paternity. We conclude that the costs of extra\u2010pair paternity and extra\u2010pair copulation are understudied, but are likely a key factor shaping this behaviour. More research, particularly empirical and experimental studies in taxa other than birds, is needed to understand the intricate cost\u2013benefit equation underlying extra\u2010pair paternity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/brv.70178","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T05:34:06Z","timestamp":1777613646000},"page":"2300-2312","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["The costs of extra\u2010pair behaviours in birds"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"101","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8146-4576","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J\u00f8rgen S.","family":"S\u00f8raker","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology, Department of Biology University of Oxford  Oxford OX1 3EL UK"},{"name":"Department of Biology Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU)  Trondheim N\u20107491 Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8234-8526","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jamie","family":"Dunning","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Imperial College London Silwood Park  Campus is Buckhurst Road, Sunninghill, Ascot Berkshire SL5 7PY UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_7_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2435.13052"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/beheco\/arp160"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_4_1","first-page":"855","article-title":"Extra\u2010pair paternity in birds: review of the genetic benefits","volume":"9","author":"Ak\u00e7ay E.","year":"2007","journal-title":"Evolutionary Ecology Research"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0260905"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_6_1","volume-title":"Infectious Diseases of Humans: Dynamics and Control","author":"Anderson R. 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