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While theoretical and experimental work has yielded qualitative progress, the large body of empirical work testing predictions about parental investment based on life\u2010history trade\u2010offs has yet to be synthesized. We first provide an overview of the core life\u2010history theory exploring how selection might shape parental care. We then conduct a systematic review and meta\u2010analysis on studies that experimentally manipulated brood size in birds, a widely used experimental approach to manipulate parental investment. We extracted 313 estimates from 62 studies representing 31 species of birds from 19 different families and tested key predictions on trade\u2010offs in parental care derived from theory. Our analysis provides strong support for some predictions about life\u2010history trade\u2010offs in parental care, but weak or equivocal support for others. Specifically, we found that overall, avian parents respond to brood size manipulations as predicted by life\u2010history theory: they increased care in response to brood enlargement, and decreased care in response to brood reductions. Furthermore, for the same relative manipulation size, responses to brood reductions were greater than responses to brood enlargements. This finding is consistent with predictions derived from life\u2010history theory based on some types of non\u2010linear utility curves. However, many predictions derived from theory are not well supported by our comparative analysis. Species' life\u2010history traits such as clutch size (a measure of current reproduction), adult survival, and broods per year (two measures of future reproduction), explained little, if any, among\u2010species variation in response to brood size manipulations. Several factors may explain this. We highlight that brood size manipulations may affect more than just perception of the value of current reproduction, such as altering parents' perception of predation risk. Importantly, these unintended consequences could lead to asymmetric responses like those we observed. Other common experimental approaches \u2013 such as hormone manipulations, altering a partner's effort, and food supplementation \u2013 often affect multiple traits or fitness components simultaneously, or may involve cues that poorly match the evolved mechanisms guiding parental behaviour. Our review of both theory and experimental approaches suggests that there are multiple opportunities for more precise experiments. We offer several recommendations for effective designs. One is improved understanding of the biology underlying the functions relating to costs and benefits, with careful consideration of not only how the manipulation will affect only one of those, but also the mechanisms that might alter how parents perceive the manipulation. We also emphasize general principles, such as assessing alternative hypotheses and devising multiple independent tests. Armed with these recommendations, we believe there are new opportunities to increase the strength of inference achieved from studies aimed at understanding the trade\u2010offs affecting the evolution of parental care.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/brv.70181","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T10:04:35Z","timestamp":1778580275000},"page":"2337-2358","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Trade\u2010offs in avian parental care: a review of theory and meta\u2010analysis of brood size manipulations"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"101","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-9601-8662","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rebekah A.","family":"McKinnon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences University of Alberta  Edmonton AB T6G 2E9 Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3993-6127","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Malgorzata","family":"Lagisz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences University of Alberta  Edmonton AB T6G 2E9 Canada"},{"name":"Ecology &amp; Evolution Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences The University of New South Wales  Sydney NSW 2052 Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2779-9276","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sheeraja","family":"Sridharan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences University of Alberta  Edmonton AB T6G 2E9 Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5163-8096","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David F.","family":"Westneat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology University of Kentucky  101 Morgan Building Lexington KY 40506\u20100225 USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2021-1369","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kimberley J.","family":"Mathot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences University of Alberta  Edmonton AB T6G 2E9 Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_9_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.51812\/of.133745"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/689678"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2009.07.012"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jeb.14210"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2013.2645"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1139\/Z07-070"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jeb.13959"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anbehav.2019.08.004"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-024-2080-7_15"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198510888.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1163\/1568539X-00003354"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rsbl.2011.0391"},{"issue":"12","key":"e_1_2_9_15_1","first-page":"6","article-title":"Ggalluvial: alluvial plots in \u2018ggplot2","volume":"0","author":"Brunson J. 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