{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T00:44:24Z","timestamp":1791938664123,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":196,"publisher":"Wiley","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791849600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791849600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100022941","name":"Australasian Society for Human Biology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100022941","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Biological Reviews"],"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Skeletal muscle architectural design strongly affects force\u2010generating capacity and excursion range, and its functional importance to animal and human movement is well founded. Traditionally, this \u2018structure\u2013function relation\u2019 has been inferred from architecture measurements with muscles at rest (from anatomical dissections or medical imaging techniques such as ultrasonography or magnetic resonance imaging) and muscle function tested under quasi\u2010steady force conditions (e.g. isometric). A contemporary view recognises that, during active, dynamic contractions, muscles undergo load\u2010 and velocity\u2010dependent changes in architecture and three\u2010dimensional shape while remaining near\u2010constant volume. Consequently, whole\u2010muscle length change and velocity can become decoupled from fascicle length change and velocity, such that the whole muscle cannot be treated as a simple linear velocity transmission system but instead as a geared system where the input fascicle length change and velocity differ from the output whole muscle length change and velocity. This phenomenon is described by the concept of \u2018muscle gearing\u2019 and can be quantified as the ratio of the velocities or displacement of the muscle to the fascicle. Gear ratios are not fixed; instead, gear shifts with force and velocity, allowing the whole\u2010muscle output to better match the mechanical demands of the task. Variable gearing is thought to emerge from load\u2010dependent changes in fascicle angle and three\u2010dimensional muscle deformations under volume\u2010preserving and tissue constraints. Variable gearing has important functional implications, as it influences fascicle operating length and shortening velocity for a given task and thereby shifts where fascicles operate along their intrinsic force\u2013length and force\u2013velocity relationships. Through these effects, along with changes in the projection of fascicle force onto the muscle line of action as pennation varies, variable gearing can broaden whole\u2010muscle force and power output across movement conditions. Accordingly, muscle gearing should be considered an integral component of a comprehensive framework for understanding dynamic muscle function in both normal and pathological states. Here, we synthesise evidence from animal and human studies to characterise variation in gearing across muscles, species and contraction conditions, and the factors that may underlie it. We use a previously validated three\u2010dimensional finite\u2010element muscle model to interrogate mechanisms that are difficult to isolate experimentally and, for the first time, demonstrate an effect of muscle activation on gearing. We also consider how ageing, injury and exercise training may alter gearing. Overall, muscle gearing has important functional implications, and our modelling demonstrates that it is an emergent property of the physics of muscle contraction.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/brv.70213","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T23:45:23Z","timestamp":1791935123000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["From muscle fibres to muscle gears: how dynamic fascicle orientation and shape change impact skeletal muscle function"],"prefix":"10.1002","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2616-2492","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matheus D.","family":"Pinto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Exercise Medicine Research Institute, School of Medical and Health Sciences Edith Cowan University  270 Joondalup Drive Joondalup Western Australia 6027 Australia"},{"name":"School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology  Victoria Park Road Kelvin Grove Queensland 4059 Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0817-0867","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James M.","family":"Wakeling","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology Simon Fraser University  8888 University Drive Burnaby British Columbia V5A 1S6 Canada"},{"name":"Department of Mathematics Simon Fraser University  8888 University Drive Burnaby British Columbia V5A 1S6 Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1708-3493","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Javier A.","family":"Almonacid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics Simon Fraser University  8888 University Drive Burnaby British Columbia V5A 1S6 Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1664-1614","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anthony J.","family":"Blazevich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Precision Health, School of Medical and Health Sciences Edith Cowan University  270 Joondalup Drive Joondalup Western Australia 6027 Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_12_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/309570","article-title":"Intermuscular fat: a review of the consequences and causes","volume":"2014","author":"Addison O.","year":"2014","journal-title":"International Journal of Endocrinology"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_12_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1111\/joa.13539","article-title":"Regional variation in lateral and medial gastrocnemius muscle fibre lengths obtained from diffusion tensor imaging","volume":"240","author":"Aeles J.","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Anatomy"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2019.01504","article-title":"Do stretch\u2010shortening cycles really occur in the medial gastrocnemius? 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