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Deep brain stimulation (\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">DBS<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    ) can improve motor symptoms in moderate to advanced\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PD<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    . However, the optimal stimulation paradigm for nonmotor symptoms (NMS), freezing of gait, and the optimal timing of\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">DBS<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    are still under investigation. The findings of pathological oscillations and abnormal frequency to amplitude coupling provide models to develop adaptive\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">DBS<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    . Transcranial magnetic stimulation (\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">TMS<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    ) revealed abnormal cortical excitability and plasticity in\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PD<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    . Consecutive sessions of high\u2010frequency, repetitive\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">TMS<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    on the motor cortex showed promising results. Paired\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">TMS<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    and\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">DBS<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    at specific times provided a novel way to investigate\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PD<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    pathophysiology and have potential as a future treatment. Transcranial direct current stimulation or transcranial alternating current stimulation with multifocal electrodes or at specific phases of oscillation are also potential future strategies.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/cpt.1542","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,10]],"date-time":"2019-06-10T04:39:35Z","timestamp":1560141575000},"page":"763-775","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":75,"title":["Invasive and Noninvasive Brain Stimulation in Parkinson's Disease: Clinical Effects and Future Perspectives"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"106","author":[{"given":"Kai\u2010Hsiang Stanley","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Krembil Research Institute University Health Network Toronto Ontario Canada"},{"name":"Department of Neurology National Taiwan University Hospital Hsin\u2010Chu Branch Hsin\u2010Chu Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Krembil Research Institute University Health Network Toronto Ontario Canada"},{"name":"Division of Neurology Department of Medicine University of Toronto Toronto Ontario Canada"},{"name":"Edmond J. 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