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However, the use of toxic metals, such as lead, in the perovskite dye and toxic chemicals in perovskite solar cell manufacturing causes grave concerns for its environmental performance. To understand and facilitate the sustainable development of perovskite solar cell technology from its design to manufacturing, a comprehensive environmental impact assessment has been conducted on titanium dioxide nanotube based perovskite solar cells by using an attributional life cycle assessment approach, from cradle to gate, with manufacturing data from our laboratory\u2010scale experiments and upstream data collected from professional databases and the literature. The results indicate that the perovskite dye is the primary source of environmental impact, associated with 64.77\u2009% total embodied energy and 31.38\u2009% embodied materials consumption, contributing to more than 50\u2009% of the life cycle impact in almost all impact categories, although lead used in the perovskite dye only contributes to about 1.14\u2009% of the human toxicity potential. A comparison of perovskite solar cells with commercial silicon and cadmium\u2013tellurium solar cells reveals that perovskite solar cells could be a promising alternative technology for future large\u2010scale industrial applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/cssc.201500848","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,10,23]],"date-time":"2015-10-23T07:22:28Z","timestamp":1445584948000},"page":"3882-3891","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":92,"title":["Life Cycle Assessment of Titania Perovskite Solar Cell Technology for Sustainable Design and Manufacturing"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Jingyi","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Wisconsin\u2014Milwaukee  3200 N Cramer Milwaukee WI 532211 USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xianfeng","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Wisconsin\u2014Milwaukee  3200 N Cramer Milwaukee WI 532211 USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yelin","family":"Deng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Wisconsin\u2014Milwaukee  3200 N Cramer Milwaukee WI 532211 USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bingbing","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Manufacturing System Engineering &amp; Management California State University\u2014Northridge  18111 Nordhoff Street Northridge CA 91330 USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chris","family":"Yuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Wisconsin\u2014Milwaukee  3200 N Cramer Milwaukee WI 532211 USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,10,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_5_1_1","unstructured":"\u00a0"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1389-5567(03)00026-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/cr900356p"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1228604"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_5_1","unstructured":"\u00a0"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1243982"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1243167"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/jz400892a"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_9_1","unstructured":"\u00a0"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature14133"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/ja809598r"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/c1nr10867k"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/pip.2573"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat4065"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-11377-6_8"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/es4037786"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/C5EE00615E"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solmat.2015.02.013"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_19_1","unstructured":"\u00a0"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/nl062000o"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/ja909456f"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/C4CC01864H"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_23_1","unstructured":"\u00a0"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0927-0248(02)00394-X"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/nl802096a"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/jp809385x"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_27_1","unstructured":"\u00a0"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.201001374"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_28_3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ange.201001374"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2013.04.037"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/sc400304h"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/c3nr03198e"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_32_1","unstructured":"Solaronix. 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