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This study aimed to determine the long\u2010term impact of SARS\u2010CoV\u20102 on immune cells and the association between BCG vaccination, latent infections and COVID\u201019 severity and sepsis progression.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      We conducted a prospective analysis of patients who recovered from mild\/severe\/critical COVID\u201019 (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u200997, 3\u201317\u2009months after COVID\u201019) and sepsis patients (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u200964). First, we assessed the impact of COVID\u201019 and its severity on immune cell frequencies and expression of functional markers. Further, we analysed plasma titres of anti\u2010\n                      <jats:italic>Toxoplasma gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                      \/cytomegalovirus\/BCG antibodies and their association with COVID\u201019 severity and sepsis outcome. To examine monocyte responses to secondary challenge, monocytes isolated from COVID\u201019 convalescent patients, BCG vaccinated and unvaccinated volunteers were stimulated with SARS\u2010CoV\u20102 and LPS.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Post\u2010COVID\u201019 patients showed immune dysregulation regardless of disease severity characterised by altered expression of activation and functional markers in myeloid (CD39, CD64, CD85d, CD11b) and lymphoid cells (CD39, CD57, TIGIT). Strikingly, post\u2010critical COVID\u201019 patients showed elevated expression of CD57 in CD8\n                      <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                      T\u00a0cells compared to other severity groups. A trend toward improved outcomes in BCG\u2010seropositive COVID\u201019\/sepsis patients was observed, although this may be confounded by age differences between groups. In contrast, the monocyte response to stimulation appeared unaffected by COVID\u201019 severity.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>These findings highlight the long\u2010term alterations of immune cells in post\u2010COVID\u201019 patients, emphasising the substantial impact of COVID\u201019 on immune function.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/cti2.70041","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,27]],"date-time":"2025-06-27T04:55:14Z","timestamp":1751000114000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Long\u2010term immune changes after\n                    <scp>COVID<\/scp>\n                    \u201019 and the effect of\n                    <scp>BCG<\/scp>\n                    vaccination and latent infections on disease 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